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Farm  Development 

An  Introductory  Book  in  Agriculture 

Including  a  Discussion  of  Soils,  Sele<fting  (&  Planmng  Farms, 
Subduing  the  Fields,  Drainage,  Irrigation,  Roads,  Fences, 
Together  with  Introduiftory  Chapters  Concerning  Farm  Busi- 
ness, and  the  Relations  of  General  Sdence  to  Agriculture 


By 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,   M.  Agr, 

Formerly  Professor  of  Agriculture,   University  of  Minnesota 
Novo  Assistant  Secretary  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW    YORK 

ORANGE   JUDD   COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Limited 
1914 


Copyright,  1910,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON,  ENGLAND 


Printed  \n  the  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  was  prepared  from  notes  used  in  giving 
instruction  to  classes  in  the  Agricultural  High  School — 
of  secondary  grade — of  the  University  of  Minnesota. 
The  students  were  nearly  all  from  farm  homes  and  nearly 
all  expected  to  return  to  the  country  to  live.  Their  needs, 
and  the  point  of  view  in  compiling  this  book,  are  those 
of  the  common  farmer.  In  editing  these  notes  an  effort 
has  been  made  to  adapt  the  text  to  the  agricultural  high 
school,  to  the  consolidated  rural  and  village  school,  and 
even  to  advanced  classes  in  the  rural  district  school,  and 
to  the  needs  of  the  farmer's  home  library.  Since  no 
attempt  is  here  made  more  than  to  introduce  the  several 
subjects,  the  farmer  or  pupil  reading  this  book  who 
wishes  to  pursue  the  subject  in  detail  should  seek  advice 
of  the  State  agricultural  college  and  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  as  to  the  best  up-to-date  available  literature 
published  by  public  and  private  agencies. 

The  chapters  dealing  with  rural  engineering  are  designed 
to  give  to  the  farmer  a  general  explanation  of  drainage, 
road  making,  etc.,  for  his  own  use  rather  than  to  train  him 
for  service  in  engineering.  The  engineer's  point  of  view 
is  only  incidental,  and  the  rural  engineer's  interest  will 
be  mainly  confined  to  the  practical  suggestions.  Very 
helpful  aid  in  revising  the  manuscript  has  been  rendered 
by  my  associates,  Messrs.  Andrew  Boss,  C.  P.  Bull,  John 
Thompson,  William  G.  Smith,  John  G.  Haney,  E.  C. 
Parker,  H.  H.  Mowry  and  Maurice  O.  ^Idridge. 

W.  M.  HAYS. 


33M64 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Preface iii 

I     Introduction           I 

II     Farming  as  a  Vocation 13 

III  Agricultural   Substances    Carry   Force    .      .  19 

IV  Geological  History  of  the  Earth   ....  32 
V     The  Soil  and  Soil  Formation 51 

VI     The  Selection  of  a  Farm  Home   ....  89 

VII     Planning  the  Farm 96 

VIII     Subduing  the  Land 117 

IX     Drainage           140 

X     Irrigation          234 

XI     Roads  and  Bridges 272 

XII     Fences         355 

Index 385 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Figures  Page 

1  Engine  with  single  steam  chest 22 

2  Tandem  compound  engine 22 

3  Common  Blue  Stem  wheat 23 

4  New  wheat  originated  by  selection 23 

5  Cow  bred  for  beef 24 

6  Cow  specially  bred  for  the  dairy 24 

7  Map  of  Great  Glacier  and  old  Lake  Agassiz 45 

8  Cross  section  of  Minnesota  river 46 

9  Cross  section  of  Mississippi  river 46 

10  Ancient  and  present  drainage  basin  of  Minnesota  river.  .  47 

11  Level/^  of  the  Mississippi  and  Minnesota  rivers  in  glacial 

times 48 

12  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  at  beginning  of  its  recession 48 

13  Mississippi  river  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony 49 

14  Diagrammatic  map  showing  origin  of  Minnehaha  falls  .  49 

15  Valley  of  a  glacial  river SO 

16  Gorge  formed  by  cutting  of  glacial  floods SO 

1 7  Corn  plant  at  four  stages 72 

18  Stem  roots  of  com  plant  nearly  ready  to  tassel 73 

19  Crown  and  stem  roots  of  mature  wheat  plant 74 

20  Pot  containing  artificially  dried  soil 75 

21  Pot  of  soil  illustrating  absorption  of  moisture 75 

22  Pot  of  soil  moistened  by  rain 77 

23  Pot  of  soil  illustrating  action  of  capillarity 77 

24  Pot  of  soil  containing  ground  water 78 

25  Pot  of  soil  in  state  of  saturation 78 

26  Pot  of  soil  after  drainage  of  ground  water 79 

27  Pot  of  soil  illustrating  the  action  of  capillarity 79 

28  Pot  of  soil  dried  by  exposure  to  air  and  baking 80 

29  Pot  of  air-dried  soil  containing  only  hygroscopic  water  81 

30  Capillary  action  illustrated  in  glass  tubes  of  large  and 

small  diameter 82 

31  Capillary  action  between  plates  of  glass 82 

32  Capillary  action  in  lamp  wick 83 

33  Soil  saturated,  with  standing  water  at  the  bottom 84 

34  Subsoil,  furrow-slice  and  dust  blanket 84 

35  Pervious  mass  of  soil  over  a  layer  of  impervious  clay  or 

stone 85 

36  How  flowing  wells  occur 86 

37  Plan  of  farmstead  with  road  on  north 101 

38  Plan  of  farmstead  with  road  on  east  and  south 102 

39  Plan  of  farmstead  fronting  road  on  south 103 

vi 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  Vll 

Figures  Page 

40  Plan  of  farmstead  tronting  road  on  west 104 

41  Plan  of  160  acre  farm 106 

42  Rotation  scheme  on  map  of  farm 107 

43a  Crops  of  the  year  on  map  of  farm 108 

43b  Plan  of  Olson  farm  before  reorganization 109 

43c  Olson  farm  as  replanned 110 

43d  Plan  of  Harlan  farm  before  reorganization Ill 

43e  Harlan  farm  as  replanned 112 

43f  Map  showing  records  of  1910  crops 113 

44  Tools  used  for  clearing  land 118 

45  Capstan  stump  puller 119 

46  Use  of  windlass  and  "stump  hook"  or  "root  plow" 120 

47  Methods  of  hitching  stump  pullers 122 

48  Mud  boat 128 

49  Low  or  handy  wagon 128 

50  Stone  boat 130 

51  Peat  hook 130 

52  Burning  surface  peat  in  Germany 132 

53  Placing  bog  shoes  on  a  horse 133 

54  Breaking  plow  with  rolling  coulter 136 

55  Breaking  plow  with  standing  coulter 136 

56  Common  gang  plow  with  breaker  bottoms 137 

57  Surveyor's  transit 157 

58  20-inch  wye  level 158 

59  Leveling  instrument  made  of  mason's  spirit  level 159 

60  Mason's  level  on  tripod  with  sights 160 

61  Homemade  leveling  instrument 161 

62  Band  chain  of  steel 162 

63  Surveyor's  chain  folded 163 

64  Surveyor's  chain  partly  folded 163 

65  Surveyor's  draw  pin 164 

66  Surveyor's  alignment  rod 164 

67  Surveyor's  leveling  rod 165 

68  Surveyor's   grade  stakes 165 

69  Simple   plan   of   mapping  to   record  location   of  outlet 

drain  and  branches 166 

70  Portion  of  a  drainage  map 167 

71  Map  of  a  drain  through  pond 168 

72  Map  of  system  of  tile  drains  on  160-acre  farm 170 

73  Map  showing  drainage  of  a  480-acre  farm 171 

74  Common  drain  tiles 172 

75  Union  tiles 172 

76  Collared  drain  tiles  or  sewer  pipes 173 

77  Branched  collared  tiles 173 

78  Plat  showing  elevations  on  a  40-acre  field 174 

79  Contour  lines  used  in  planning  drains. 175 

80  Map  of  a  "section"  of  level  land  drained  by  surface  drains  176 

81  Blank  form  used  in  recording  notes  of  levels 185 

81a  Manner  of  using   leveling  instrument 186 


Vlll  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

• 

Figures  Page 

82  Blank  form  used  in  recording  measurements  of  levels 

taken  down  grade 190 

83  Profile  showing  surface  and  grade  line  of  ditch 192 

84  System  of  mapping  drains  and  sizes  of  tiles  in  a  low 

place    195 

85  Cross  section  of  field  showing  elevation  of  soil  above  the 

datum   plane 197 

86  Cross  section  of  field  showing  the  depth  of  the  ditch  as 

finally  calculated 197 

87  How  water  seeks  the  drains 198 

88  Showing  disposition  of  earth  handled  with  road  machine 

and  spade 199 

89  Different  dimensions  of  ditch  for  receiving  drain  tiles  of 

different   sizes 200 

90  Tile  or  ditching  spade 201 

91  Small  tile  spade 201 

92  Tile  hoe  for  grading  bottom  of  tile  ditch 202 

92a  Tile  hoe,  adjustable  to  push  or  pull 202 

93  Method  of  spading  out  successive  courses  in  opening  a 

ditch  for  tiles 203 

94  Showing  the  successive  operations  necessary  in  construct- 

ing tile  drain 204 

95  Triangular  tile  drain  grader 205 

96  Grading  frame  used  in  leveling  bottom  of  tile  ditch ....  206 

97  Mason's  level 207 

98  Detail  of  construction  of  grading  frame 207 

99  Students  preparing  ditch  for  laying  tile     208 

100  Students  constructing  tile  drain 209 

101  Manner  of  accurately  determining  the  proper  depth  to 

grade    bottom    of    the    ditch    210 

102  Effects  of  faulty  grading  of  bottom  of  ditch 210 

103  Laying  tile  drains 211 

104  Tile  hook 212 

105  Masses  of  maple  roots  taken  from  drain  tiles 213 

106  Filling  tile  ditch  with  drag  or  slush  scraper 214 

107  Filling  tile  ditch  with  especially  constructed  scraper.  ...  214 

108  Filling  tile  ditch  with  a  reversible  road  machine 215 

109  Tile-ditching  machine  opening  four-foot  ditch 216 

110  Mole  ditcher 217 

111  Outlet  to  tile  drain  or  to  earthen  pipe  culvert 218 

112  Outlet  to  drain  protected  by  masonry 218 

113  Improperly  protected  outlet  for  drain '.' 219 

114  General  plan  of  silt  well , 220 

115  Drag  or  slush  scraper 220 

115a  Fresno  scraper 221 

116  Wheel  scraper  lowered  for  filling 221 

117  Reversible  road  machine  making  lateral  ditches 222 

118  Form  of  ditch  beside  fence  line 222 

119  Elevating  grader  opening  large  ditch 223 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  IX 


Figures  Page 

1 20  Floating  dredge 223 

121  Open  ditch  showing  slope  of  banks 224 

122  Proper  form  of  surface  ditch  where  earth  is  firm 224 

123  Ditch  made  with  capstan  ditching  plow 224 

124  Angle  of  repose  where  ditch  banks  have  caved  in 225 

125  Ditch  in  a  soil  which  caves  in  easily  from  washing.  ...    225 

126  Ditch  made  with  spade  through  peaty  soil 225 

127  Narrow,   deep   ditch  with  braced  poles  protecting  the 

sides  from  washing 226 

128  Plat  of  pond  draining  into  drainage  well 226 

129  Cross  section  of  tiled  pond  discharging  into  drainage  well 

beside  pond 227 

130  Vertical  outlet  for  tile  drains  through  impervious  stratum  227 

131  Drains  constructed  of  field  stones 228 

132  Drains  constructed  of  boards 228 

133  Longitudinal  section  of  a  pole  drain  in  peaty  land 229 

134  Cross  section  of  a  pole  drain  in  peaty  land 229 

135  Drainage  pumping  station 230 

136  Irrigation   supply   ditch    carried    across   low   areas    and 

through  land  at  grade 235 

137  Method  of  fluming  water  supply  across  low  places.  ...    235 

138  Windmill  and  storage  reservoir  for  irrigation  water.  ...    236 

139  Portable  steam  pump  for  flooding  rice  fields 237 

140  Stationary  steam  pump  for  irrigation 240 

141  Flowing  artesian  well  in  Nebraska 242 

142  Raising  water  by  hand  in  Egypt 244 

143  How  irrigation  and  drainage  systems  can  be  installed  on 

the  same  farm 246 

144  Supplying  irrigation  water  by  pumping. 248 

145  Model  of  irrigation  plant 249 

146  Trial  survey  line  and  adopted  course  for  main  irrigation 

canal 250 

147.     Drop  in  irrigation  ditch 251 

148  Division  box  in  irrigation  ditch 252 

149  Simple  head  gate  for  irrigation  ditch 253 

150  Head  gate  or  turnout  for  regulating  and  measuring  water 

to  farmer's  ditch 254 

151  Measuring    weir 255 

1 52  Details  of  weir  board 256 

1 53  Measuring  weir 257 

154  Plank  scraper  for  opening  irrigation  ditch 258 

155  Plank  scraper  in  use 259 

156  Supply  ditch  as  made  with  reversible  road  machine.  ...    260 

157  Ditch' for  farm  lateral  made  with  ordinary  stubble  plow  260 

158  Biped  leveling  device 261 

159  Manner  of  using  biped  leveling  device 262 

160  Detail  of  adjustable  leg  of  biped  leveling  device 262 

161  Grade  level  of  light  planed  boards 263 

162  Listing  plow  for  making  shallow  ditches 263 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Figures  Pafi:e 

163  Ditching  "A"  for  finishing  small  laterals 264 

164  Canvas  dam 264 

165  Canvas  dam  in  use  in  beet  field 265 

166  Metal  dam  or  tappoon 266 

167  Small  box  culvert 266 

168  Small  box  culvert 266 

169  Furrow  irrigation  of  garden  crops 267 

170  Flooding  from  field  laterals  without  furrows 268 

171  Flooding  from  ditch  running  down  the  slope 269 

172  Location  of  drains  to  intercept  seepage  water 270 

1 73  The  road  of  the  pioneers 274 

174  The  pioneers'  road  macadamized 275 

175  Pioneer  wooden  culvert  in  road 300 

1 76  Stone  culvert 301 

177  Cement  culvert  with  wing  walls 302 

178  Behavior  of  a  hard  and  a  yielding  surface  under  wheel 

pressure 304 

1 79  Macadam  road  cross  section 305 

180  Roadway  made  of  8  inches  of  gravel  on  peat 305 

181  Road  with  side  ditches  with  vertical  outer  edges 306 

182  Road  made  with  reversible  road  machine 306 

183  Road  with  rounded  ditches 307 

184  Roadway    with   rounded    ditch    and    with    ditch    with 

vertical  outer  edge 307 

185  Roadside  ditches  made  with  slush  scraper 308 

186  Rudely  constructed  ditches  on  both  sides  of  a  high  fill.  .    308 

187  Road  along  drainage  canal  using  earth  ridge  as  roadway  308 

188  Road  along  side  of  hill  without  proper  provision  for  drain- 

age      309 

189  Properly  drained  road  along  hillside 309 

190  Properly  graded  and  drained  road  along  side  of  hill.  ...    310 

191  Culvert  placed  in  road  on  hillside 310 

192  Drain  tiles  laid  under  middle  of  roadway 311 

193  Drain  tile  laid  under  each  side  of  roadway 311 

194  Use  of  drain  tile  to  intercept  water  on  upper  side  of 

roadway    311 

195  Location  of  ditch  draining  a  road  and  adjacent  farms.  .    312 

196  A  grade  across  peaty  land 313 

197  A  heavy  grade  built  across  a  marsh 313 

198  Railroad  plow  used  for  road  work 314 

198a  Reversible  road  machine  doing  its  own  plowing 314 

199  Reversible   road  machine  moving  a  furrow-slice  toward 

the  center  of  the  road 315 

200  Reversible  road  machine  carrying  dirt  from  deep  road- 

side ditch  toward  center  of  road 316 

201  Reversible  road  machine  cutting  away  bank  to  widen  an 

old  road    • 317 

202  Elevating-grader 318 

203  Elevating-grader 318 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 

Figures  Page 

204  Elevating-grader  in  operation 319 

205  Road  as    left    by    elevating-grader    where    the    belt    is 

not  long  enough  to  carry  earth  to  the  road  center.  ...    320 

206  Narrow  road  showing  earth  as  left  by  elevating-grader 

in  a  ridge 320 

207  Road  as  left  by  Fresno  or  wheel  scraper.  .  .• 321 

208  Wide  road  with  heavy  side  ditches 321 

209  Use  of  wheel  scrapers  and  plows  in  grading  a  cut  through 

a  hill 324 

210  Dump  wagon  with  drop  bottom 325 

211  Substructure  prepared  for  macadam  surface ».  326 

212  First  course  of  stone  for  macadamizing 326 

213  Three  courses  of  macadam  surface 326 

214  Macadam   surface 326 

215  Heavy  telford  road  surface 328 

216  Telford  road  surface 328 

217  Telford  road  with  macadam  surface 328 

218  Several  forms  of  stone  roads 329 

219  Macadam  road  on  one  side  of  center  of  grade  and  earth 

track  on  the  other  side 330 

220  Laying  lower  course  of  telford  road 33  i 

221  How  to  apply  measures  during  course  of  construction.  .  335 

222  Rock  crusher 335 

223  Rock  crusher  with  elevator  and  screen 336 

224  Semi-stationary  rock  crusher.  .^ 337 

225  Stone  crushing  plant  in  operation 337 

226  Reversible  road  rollers 339 

227  Steam  road  roller 342 

228  •   Steam  road  roller 343 

229  Road  with  track  on  one  side  of  the  center  laid  with  brick  344 

230  Roadway  built  of  granite  blocks 344 

231  Roadway  paved  with  flat  rocks 345 

232  Roadway  paved  with  cobblestones 345 

233  Road  with  a  steel  track  for  a  wagon  road 346 

234  The  split-log  road  drag 347 

235  King  drag  with  steel  edges  bolted  on  the  split  logs    ....    347 

236  Steam  road   roller  with   spikes   breaking  up   macadam 

surface  for  resurfacing 348 

237  Sidewalk  and  bicycle  path  between  road  ditch  and  fence  348 

238  Bicycle  path  or  walk  between  wheel  track  and  ditch ...  .  349 

239  Ford  across  a  creek 349 

240  Fence  line  in  the  wrong  place 356 

241  Driving  fence  posts  with  sledge 357 

242  Device  for  pulling  fence  posts  with  the  aid  of  a  team ....  358 

243  Woven  wire  fencing 359 

244  Woven  wire  fence  with  barbed  wire  above 359 

245  Hog  and  cattle  fence 360 

246  Actual  size  of  wire,  by  numbers 361 

247  Method  of  anchoring  fence  ribbon  between  posts 362 


Xll  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Figures  Page 

248  Three-wire  barbed  cattle-fence 363 

249  Tool  for  splicing  wires 364 

250  Light  portable  fence 366 

251  Hedge  experiment  at  Minnesota  Agricultural  College.  .  .  366 

252  Buckthorn  hedge  beside  roadway 367 

253  Mold  for  making  concrete  posts 368 

254  Different  forms  of  concrete  posts 369 

255  Concrete  corner  posts  built  in  place 370 

256  Manner  of  building  concrete  posts  in  place 371 

257  Cement  posts  faced  with  wooden  stay 372 

258  Cement  posts  with  wire  loops  for  spacing  fence  wires.  ...  372 

259  Cement  corner  post  carrying  iron  gate 373 

260  Cement  corner  posts,  brace  post,  and  brace 373 

261  Stretching  a  ribbon  of  woven  wire  to  attach  it  to  a  cor- 

ner post 374 

262  Cement  corner  posts  and  braces  molded  in  place 374 

263  Cement  corner  posts  and  braces  all  made  in  place  for 

woven  wire  fence 375 

264  Well-braced  cement  corner  post  and  cement  line  posts.  .  375 

265  One  of  the  very  best  systems  of  bracing  wooden  end 

posts    376 

266  Poor  method  of  bracing  comer  posts 376 

267  Good  method  of  bracing  wooden  corner  posts 377 

268  Bracing  end  post  with  rocks 378 

269  Bracing  end  post  with  steel  rod  and  "dead  man"  of  iron  378 

270  Bracing  comer  post 379 

271  Bracing  end  post  with  wire  cables  and  "dead  man"  of 

stone 379 

272  Common  three-board  slide  gate 380 

273  Rustic  and  serviceable  pioneer  gate 380 

274  Swing    gate 381 

275  Western  slide  gate 381 

276  Steel  slide  gate 382 

277  Single  hinged  drive  gate  of  angle  iron  and  wire 382 

278  Large  gate  adapted  for  entrance  to  farm 382 

279  Paddock  gate 383 

280  Heavy  paddock  gate 383 

281  Stile  across  a  wire  fence 384 


FARM  DEVELOPMENT 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 


Agricultural  science  and  art  deal  with  the  production, 
from  the  soil,  of  foods,  clothing,  wood  and  other  useful 
materials.  Many  of  the  natural  sciences  have  a  theoret- 
ical and  a  practical  bearing  on  this  greatest  of  the  pro- 
ductive industries ;  and  the  arts  which  have  a  useful 
relation  to  farming  are  numerous  and  varied.  In  no 
other  vocation  are  the  sciences  and  the  arts  so  extensively 
and  intimately  interwoven. 

While  some  persons  with  comparatively  little  book  learn- 
ing make  money  by  farming,  there  is  no  other  vocation  in 
which  there  is  so  much  useful  and  interesting  knowledge 
that  applies  directly  to  the  business  and  to  the  home. 
Differing  from  any  other  vocation,  the  business  and  the 
home  are  here  a  unit;  and  the  family-sized  farm,  the 
"  family  farm,"  is  our  most  important  business,  educa- 
tional, social,  and  racial  institution.  In  no  other  element 
of  our  national  organization  is  Americanism  so  well 
exemplified ;  its  democracy  is  well-nigh  complete. 
None  other  of  our  institutions  is  more  worthy  of  being 
copied  by  the  people  of  other  countries,  because  the 
separate  family  farm,  supplemented  by  the  consolidated 
"  farm  school,"  uniting  the  apprenticeship  work  of  the 
farm  and  the  home  with  the  general  and  technical  work 
of  the  farm  school,  will  provide  the  best  conditions 
under  which  to  develop  superior  races  of  men  and 
women.  The  farmer  and  the  farm  home  maker  need 
to   exercise  great   wisdom   in  selecting,   from  the  mass 


of  daily  experience  and  from  book  knowledge,  practical 
facts  and  theories  which  are  of  the  highest  importance 
in  acquiring  success  under  his  or  her  environment. 

Home  training. — Most  of  the  plain  farm  arts,  as  plow- 
ing, sowing,  harvesting,  feeding,  breeding,  buying  and 
selling,  and  much  of  the  mechanical  work  of  the  farm, 
are  best  learned  by  everyday  practice  in  the  business. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  the  home  arts,  as  cooking,  sew- 
ing, house  decorating,  home  making,  entertaining  and 
character  building.  Without  practical  experience  the 
would-be  farmer  is  not  adept  in  selecting  the  practical 
methods  and  theories  from  the  great  mass  of  available 
thought  and  adapting  them  to  his  conditions.  Those 
who  have  more  theoretical  knowledge  than  practical 
experience  are  not  inclined  to  be  conservative  in  adopt- 
ing new  theories  and  new  practices;  on  the  other  hand, 
those  who  lack  training  in  scientific  theory  are  not 
usually  capable  of  working  out  new  things  of  practical 
importance.  A  combination  of  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  is  necessary  for  the  best  success  in  any  line 
of  effort;  and  in  no  line  of  business  is  this  more  true 
than  in  farming. 

Technical  and  scientific  as  well  as  practical  knowledge 
is  of  daily  and  yearly  value  in  the  home  and  on  the  farm ; 
and  in  these  progressive  times  every  person  should  be 
constantly  in  the  attitude  of  an  inquirer,  a  student.  All 
the  agencies  yielding  useful  information  should  be 
utilized.  Agricultural  periodicals,  books  on  agricultural 
subjects,  speeches  at  farmers'  institutes  and  other 
farmers'  meetings  are  sources  of  much  information  re- 
garding farm  life  and  farm  business.  Much  of  the  best 
information  and  many  theories  of  farm  and  farm  home 
management  may  be  acquired  by  young  farmers  from 
their  parents  and  from  intelligent  folk  with  whom  they 
associate.  Consultation  with  those  who  have  made  a 
success  of  any  special  line  of  home  or  farm  development 


INTRODUCTION  3 

IS  probably  the  most  important  source  of  information 
and  advice.  Personal  friends,  to  whom  one  can  trust  his 
plans  for  suggestive  and  curative  advice,  are  most  im- 
portant agencies  to  be  employed  w^ith  conservative  free- 
dom by  farmers  whose  isolation  makes  necessary  an 
effort  to  measure  their  plans  through  the  minds  of  others. 
Giving  suggestions  to  a  friend  is  one  of  the  opportunities 
for  doing  good ;  and  every  true  man  and  woman  sacredly 
keeps  confidences  given  while  another  is  asking  advice. 
Technical  education  in  agriculture. — Schools  to  pro- 
mote the  professions  have  long  been  organized.  More 
recently,  schools  for  the  business  vocations  and  for  the 
mechanical  trades  are  being  established;  schools  of 
agriculture,  which  earlier  proved  difficult  of  develop- 
ment, have  in  recent  years  been  made  to  succeed,  and 
schools  of  household  economics  have  been  even  later 
in  their  development.  Schools  designed  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  and  farm  home  making  have  as  won- 
derful possibilities  in  building  up  rural  business  and 
country  life  as  have  schools  of  medicine  in  advancing 
the  cause  of  preventive  and  curative  medicine.  Schools 
which  teach  agriculture  are  most  useful  to  those  persons 
who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  receive  the  advantages  they 
afford  before  settling  down  to  life's  business  of  home 
making  and  farming.  These  schools  have  also  a  very 
great  value  in  giving  dignity,  profit,  and  comfort  to  farm- 
ers as  a  class,  and  in  providing  more  and  cheaper  farm 
products  for  all  classes  of  people.  These  schools  teach 
the  underlying  principles  which  govern  farm  and  home 
management  and  add  to  the  practical  knowledge  which 
every  farm  boy  or  girl  acquires  in  youth.  Many  of  the 
erroneous  notions  gained  from  the  experiences  of  one 
isolated  farm,  or  from  practical  people  who  sometimes 
have  wrong  theories,  are  here  corrected.  By  coming  in 
daily  contact  with  able  teachers  and  bright  fellow-stu- 
dents, the  boy  or  girl  from  the  farm  is  enabled  to  obtain  a 


4  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

broader  view  of  the  questions  of  life  and  business.  At 
the  same  time,  the  use  of  the  naturalist's  microscope,  the 
chemist's  crucible  and  balance,  and  other  instruments  of 
precision,  trains  the  student's  eye  so  that  he  sees  and 
appreciates  many  things  on  the  farm  which  previously 
had  little  or  no  meaning.  The  daily  routine  of  class 
work,  of  note  and  essay  writing,  of  searching  for  refer- 
ences, of  recitation  in  class,  and  of  work  in  the  literary 
societies,  places  the  mind  of  the  pupil  on  a  new  plane. 
He  returns  home  with  new  power  to  do  the  thinking 
necessary  to  higher  development  in  farm  life. 

The  young  man  gains  dexterity  in  the  arts  of  carpentry, 
blacksmithing, dairying,  breeding,  feeding,  and  in  the  rais- 
ing and  handling  of  forage,  grain,  garden  and  other  crops ; 
the  young  woman  becomes  more  expert  in  the  arts  of 
cookery,  sewing  and  home  keeping;  while  both  gain 
added  power  in  character  building  in  the  home  and  in 
the  community.  Broader  views  of  farm  planning,  farm 
improvement,  and  farm  management  are  also  acquired. 
The  mind  is  made  more  active  and  more  accurate ;  formal 
processes  of  figuring  and  planning  and  of  doing  things 
are  learned ;  the  books  from  which  to  seek  specific  in- 
formation are  made  known;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
hand  is  trained  to  execute  work  with  greater  precision. 
Even  systematic  military  and  physical  training  are  pro- 
vided by  the  state  in  its  local  and  general  schools  which 
instruct  in  agriculture,  thus  giving  the  students  complete 
body  development.  By  doing  things  with  hand  and  mind 
under  a  trained  expert,  a  student  learns  to  do  them  accu- 
rately and  to  think  clearly  and  rapidly.  Dealing  both 
with  things  and  with  printed  pages,  the  mind  does  not 
lose  its  originality  and  versatility,  as  when  the  education 
deals  only  with  the  words  of  books. 

Education  consists  largely  in  the  training  of  the  judg- 
ment. Practical  experience  in  life  gives  more  natural 
training  than   does  attending  school.     But  the   intense 


INTRODUCTION  5 

training  of  the  school — the  training  to  think  consecu- 
tively and  logically,  and  to  do  things  well  under  super- 
vision— the  establishment  of  ideals,  and  the  storing  of  a 
broad  knowledge,  make  the  school  a  necessary  part  of  a 
person's  experience.  The  education  of  practical  experi- 
ence and  of  the  school  must  be  combined  to  produce  the 
well-rounded  man  or  woman.  The  more  practical  educa- 
tion of  the  industrial  and  technical  school  subjects  trains 
the  judgment  to  deal  with  things.  The  modern  stock  judg- 
ing or  corn  judging  class,  for  example,  gives  the  mind  a 
grasp  on  the  practical  differences  in  values  which  make 
wealth,  and  gives  the  man  a  confidence  in  himself  and  an 
ability  to  do  things  as  well  as  to  think  things.  "  Instruc- 
tion in  judging  is  closely  akin  to  training  the  common 
sense,  and  is  the  highest  class  of  pedagogy." 

The  Nation  and  the  States  have  come  to  recognize  that 
the  business  of  farming  is  peculiarly  aided  by  vocational 
education  in  agriculture  and  home  economics.  Since  the 
people  of  the  farm  are  somewhat  isolated,  it  is  especially 
important  that  young  people  who  are  to  be  the  future 
farmers  should  go  to  schools  where  they  can  make  farm- 
ing and  farm  home  making  a  study  under  a  faculty  of 
strong  technical  teachers,  and  where  they  can  have 
acquaintance  and  experience  among  large  numbers  of 
people. 

It  is  wise  economy  on  the  part  of  the  State  to  establish 
schools  where  a  large  percentage  of  the  young  farmers 
can  get  a  good  education  in  agriculture  and  home  mak- 
ing along  with  schooling  in  the  general  subjects.  By  in- 
creasing the  ability  of  the  individual  to  make  his  work 
produce  more,  the  State  gains  a  larger  income,  and  the 
individual  and  national  life  become  richer  and  more 
highly  developed.  The  young  men  or  the  young  women 
who  spend  a  few  years  in  the  technical  study  of  those 
practical  things  with  which  they  must  deal  every  day  of 
their  lives,  get  much  benefit  from  the  means  expended 


O  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

by  the  State  for  agricultural  schools,  and  in  turn  they 
may  be,  and  are,  more  useful  to  their  neighboring  citi- 
zens and  to  the  State. 

The  fact  that,  for  every  dollar  the  student  spends  for 
his  education,  the  State  and  the  Nation  pay  another,  puts 
him  in  debt  to  the  country;  and  he  should  show  pro- 
found gratitude  by  being  a  more  successful,  a  more  use- 
ful and  a  more  public-spirited  citizen.  Agriculture  de- 
mands the  best  exercise  of  both  the  brain  and  muscle  of 
the  youth,  and  thus  aids  in  building  up  strong  character. 
Agriculture  should  be  fostered ;  it  should  be  aided  to  the 
utmost  so  that  our  lands,  growing  in  productiveness,  and 
the  inherited  and  acquired  character  of  our  country  peo- 
ple may  continue  to  be  the  enduring  foundations  of  the 
republic. 

Our  statesmen  and  educators  should  co-operate  in 
devising  a  system  of  country  life  education  which  will 
enable  those  who  work  the  land  to  own  it  in  farms  of 
family  size.  Though  it  might  appear  that  the  large  estate 
with  transient  or  semi-peasant  labor  would  produce  food 
and  clothing  for  the  Nation  more  cheaply  than  does  the 
family  farm,  folks  are  the  land's  supreme  product ;  and 
when  the  land  is  divided  off  into  family  farms,  needing 
only  occasional  outside  help,  the  production  per  square 
mile  of  farm  homes  and  of  high-type  Americans  is 
greatly  increased. 

The  larger  values  per  acre  of  farm  lands,  the  larger 
income  per  acre  and  per  farm  worker,  the  better  invest- 
ment in  farm  buildings,  fences,  machinery  and  live  stock, 
all  being  made  possible  and  increased  by  modern  dis- 
covery, invention  and  organization,  and  the  larger  produc- 
tion of  better  farm  folks,  make  possible  any  reasonable 
expenditure  for  education  in  country  life  subjects.  The 
system  of  schools  outlined  above  will  increase  taxes  on 
land  and  on  personal  property.  It  will,  however,  take 
off  such  a  load  of  ignorance,  of  wasted  opportunity,  of 


INTRODUCTION  7 

poor  crops,  of  unprofitable  animals,  of  loss  in  marketings 
of  political  inefficiency,  of  undeveloped  social  enjoy- 
ments, and  of  unlovely  country  homes,  that  its  annual 
cost  will  more  than  be  made  up  every  quarter  of  a  year. 
America  can  no  more  afford  to  do  without  an  efficient 
system  of  education,  adapted  to  those  who  are  to  manage 
its  farms  and  its  farm  homes,  which  will  bring  to  the 
farmers  the  full  benefit  of  modern  knowledge,  facilities 
and  organization,  than  it  could  afford  to  discard  modern 
railways. 

Institutions  devoted  to  education  for  counJ:ry  life. — 
In  1862,  during  the  Civil  war,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  took  two  important  steps  to  organize 
technical  education  in  agriculture.  The  first  provided 
for  institutions  to  build  up  a  body  of  scientific  knowledge 
of  agriculture;  to  serve  both  as  a  general  fund  of  in- 
formation to  all  who  farm  and  as  the  substance  of 
instruction  in  agriculture  in  schools.  The  second  provided 
for  a  system  of  schools  especially  devoted  to  country 
life.  Along  with  the  latter,  provisions  were  also  made 
for  education  in  mechanic  arts,  the  combined  work  being 
provided  for  in  a  State  college  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts  in  each  State ;  and  education  in  home 
economics  has  grown  ud  in  these  institutions  along  with 
education  in  the  productive  industries. 

The  scientific  institutions  which  have  grown  out  of 
the  first  of  these  acts  of  Congress  are  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  about  fifty  State  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations.  The  State  stations  were  not 
organized  till  later,  but  they  are  a  part  of  the  same 
movement,  and  part  of  their  support  is  annually  appro- 
priated by  Congress.  These  institutions  employ  thou- 
sands of  men  engaged  in  research  in  all  phases  of  agricul- 
ture. Many  of  the  states  have  appropriated  money  for 
branch  stations,  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  also  has  established  outposts  for  research 


8  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

under  its  control.  In  this  way  the  State  and  the  Nation 
are  able  to  study  farm  management  and  many  special 
questions  relating  to  farming,  on  each  large  area  of 
definite  kind  of  soil  and  in  each  climatic  and  agricul- 
tural area.  All  the  leading  countries  of  the  world  are 
conducting  agricultural  researches,  though  no  other  has 
so  extensive  an  organization  as  the  United  States.  In 
the  nineteenth  century,  there  was  spent  in  this  way,  in 
the  world,  probably  $25,000,000,  and  appropriations  for 
this  purpose  are  being  so  rapidly  increased  that  there 
will  have  been  spent  more  than  twice  that  amount  in  the 
first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century.  By  the  time  farm 
youths  born  in  1900  are  in  middle  life,  there  will  have 
accumulated  a  body  of  agricultural  knowledge  resulting 
from  an  investment  of  probably  $500,000,000.  These 
expenditures  are  resulting  in  a  large  accumulation 
of  scientific  and  practical  facts  useful  to  farmers 
and  farm  home  makers.  From  this  great  mass  of 
knowledge,  teachers  are  gradually  sorting  out  portions 
which  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  use  in  making  text- 
books for  schools  for  farm  youth.  It  would  seem  good 
statesmanship  to  assume  that  this  knowledge  will  suc- 
cessfully knock  at  the  doors  even  of  our  rural  schools  and 
there  find  a  place  beside  the  three  R's,  so  that  each  farm 
boy  and  girl  may  have  the  key  to  this  vast  store  of 
knowledge,  and  that  our  schools  will  be  developed  to 
bring  this  information  successfully  to  all  youths  who  arc 
to  become  farmers. 

While  Congress  provided  only  for  colleges  of  agricul- 
ture, the  movement  which  was  crystallized  into  the 
Federal  law  of  1862  has  resulted  also  in  developing  agri- 
cultural education  in  schools  below  collegiate  grade. 
Thus  a  number  of  agricultural  high  schools  of  secondary 
school  grade  have  been  successfully  organized;  agricul- 
ture has  also  found  its  way  with  some  degree  of  success 
into  the  secondary  courses  of  public  schools  in  cities. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

towns,  villages  and  consolidated  rural  schools,  and  even 
in  the  elementary  courses  of  the  district  rural  schools.  The 
three  distinctive  kinds  of  schools  in  which  agricultural 
education  will  be  most  intensively  and  successfully 
taught  are  State  agricultural  colleges;  large  agricul- 
tural high  schools,  probably  one  for  each  ten  counties ; 
and  consolidated  rural  and  village  schools  to  which  the 
pupils  are  taken  in  school  wagons.  The  State  normal 
schools  also  are  preparing  to  do  especially  good  service 
in  fitting  teachers  to  instruct  in  agriculture,  and  many  of 
the  colleges  of  agriculture  are  establishing  educational 
departments  in  which  to  make  a  specialty  of  helping 
prepare  the  large  number  of  teachers  needed.  Many 
city  and  town  public  schools,  also  non-public  schools  of 
all  grades,  including  universities,  will  also  provide  more 
or  less  instruction  relating  to  the  farm  and  farm  home, 
and  the  aggregate  of  their  work  will  be  considerable. 

But  the  bulk  of  the  work  will  be  done  in  an  articulated 
system  made  up  of  the  four  classes  of  schools  which  are 
attended  mainly  by  pupils  from  the  farm,  most  of  whom 
are  to  manage  farms  and  farm  homes.  These  are,  first, 
district  rural  schools,  usually  with  one  room,  to  which 
the  pupils  walk;  and  while  these  schools  are  destined  to 
give  way  in  well-settled  farm  communities  to  the  larger 
school  next  named,  probably  a  hundred  thousand  will 
remain  in  sparsely  settled  and  isolated  communities. 
Schools  of  the  second  class  are  formed  by  consolidating 
six  or  eight  one-room  schools  in  the  open  country,  and 
the  pupils  are  transported  to  and  from  the  schools,  for 
the  most  part,  in  school  wagons.  These  consolidated 
rural  schools  (of  which  we  should  have  20,000  or  30,000, 
located  on  small  school  farms  among  farms,  and  giving 
instruction  to  pupils  from  farm  homes)  to  distinguish 
them  from  district  rural  schools,  may  properly  be  called 
farm  schools,  as  Grant  Farm  School,  Owl  Creek  Farm 
School.     Schools  of  the  third  class  are  on  large  school 


10  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

farms,  provide  dormitories,  or  allovvr  the  pupils  to 
board  in  the  adjoining  tow^n,  are  of  secondary  grade, 
and  are  called  agricultural  high  schools.  They  receive 
students  from  consolidated  rural  schools  and  from  the 
district  rural  schools,  also  from  village  and  tow^n  schools, 
most  of  w^hom  return  to  the  facm,  but  they  also  prepare 
students  to  enter  the  agricultural  college.  The  State 
agricultural  colleges  constitute  the  fourth  class.  In  a 
few  States  they  are  separate  institutions;  in  others  they 
are  joined  with  colleges  of  mechanic  arts  and  colleges  of 
science ;  and  in  yet  other  cases  the  agricultural  college 
is  one  of  a  group  of  colleges  making  up  the  State  uni- 
versity. 

In  the  district  rural  school  some  subjects  relating  to 
agriculture  and  home  making  may  be  successfully  taught 
by  well-prepared  teachers.  Some  rather  inexpensive 
equipment  can  be  afforded,  and  the  practical  facilities  of 
the  farm  and  the  farm  home  may  be  used  extensively. 
Here  the  preparation  of  the  teacher  is  the  paramount 
consideration. 

The  consolidated  rural  school,  or  farm  school,  receives 
pupils  from  a  district  four  to  six  miles  across.  It  has  a 
ten-acre  farm,  a  four  or  five-room  school  building,  a 
cottage  for  the  principal  and  small  farm  buildings.  On 
the  half  of  the  school  farm  which  is  used  for  a  combined 
campus  and  farmstead,  there  are  groves,  orchards,  gar- 
dens, ornamental  trees,  shrubs  and  flowers  and  ample 
playgrounds.  On  the  other  half,  are  field  crops  on  min- 
iature fields  and  plats.  The  pupils,  under  the  instruction 
of  the  teacher  who  is  trained  to  teach  agriculture,  use  all 
these  plantings  as  a  working  laboratory.  The  older 
pupils  attend  school  only  six  months  and  the  alternating 
six  months  they  help  raise  crops  on  the  home  farm. 
The  principal  can  help  the  parents  supervise  their  work 
and  make  the  summer  a  truly  educational  period  of 
apprenticeship  in  the  actual  business  of  farming.     In  like 


INTRODUCTION  1 1 

manner  the  assistant  principal,  who  is  trained  to  teach 
home  economics,  can  visit  the  older  girls  in  their  homes 
during  the  vacation  and  thus  supplement  the  instruction 
given  in  cooking,  sewing  and  other  household  subjects 
taught  during  the  winter  in  school.  Thus  the  one  to  two 
hundred  farms  and  farm  homes  in  the  consolidated  rural 
school  district  are  great  laboratory  adjuncts  to  the  farm 
school. 

The  large  agricultural  high  school  has  a  group  of 
trained  technical  teachers  in  agriculture  and  home 
economics,  each  with  such  equipment  as  is  necessary  to 
demonstrate  and  give  practice  in  the  various  special 
lines  taught. 

The  agricultural  college  is  still  more  highly  equipped 
with  technical  teachers,  laboratories,  libraries  and  facil- 
ities to  give  training  preparatory  to  teaching  research  or 
other  public  or  private  service  in  agriculture  or  home 
economics,  as  well  as  for  the  practical  affairs  of  the  farm 
and  the  farm  home. 

The  college  receives  students  from  agricultural  high 
schools  or  from  other  secondary  schools  giving  an  equiv- 
alent of  preparation.  The  agricultural  high  school  re- 
ceives pupils  from  the  district  rural  school ;  and  from 
the  consolidated  rural,  village  or  town  school  where  a 
partial  agricultural  high  school  course  is  given,  students 
are  received  with  such  advanced  standing  as  their  ad- 
vancement warrants.  The  consolidated  rural  school 
provides  the  elementary  eight-year  course,  and  often 
one,  two  or  more  years  of  the  high  school  course.  A 
system  under  which  many  farm  pupils  can  secure  the 
elementary  course  and  two  years  of  high  school  work 
in  the  consolidated  rural  school,  or  in  the  village  or  town 
school,  and  a  two-year  finishing  course  in  a  large  agri- 
cultural high  school,  would  suit  the  needs  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  who  are  to  be  farmers  and  farm  home- 
makers.     The  expense  in  time  and  money  would  not  be 


12  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

too  great  and  the  education  and  inspiration  for  good 
farming,  superior  home-making  and  enlightened  citizen- 
ship thus  sustained  in  the  open  country  will  be  beyond 
our  fondest  dreams.  Boys  from  villages,  cities  and 
sparsely  settled  districts  who  wish  to  learn  farming,  can 
often  secure  places  on  good  farms  where  they  can  work 
in  summer  and  attend  the  consolidated  rural  school  or 
the  agricultural  high  school  in  winter. 

This  general  scheme  of  four  classes  of  schools,  closely 
interwoven  as  a  part  of  our  entire  school  system, 
promises  to  provide  both  general  and  vocational  school 
facilities  for  nearly  all  who  are  to  live  on  farms.  At  the 
same  time,  vocational  as  well  as  general  training  is  being 
developed  for  those  who  work  in  the  non-agricultural  in- 
dustries. Thus  vocational  education  in  the  productive 
industries  and  in  home  making  promises  to  follow  tech- 
nical education  for  the  professions.  When  all  the  schools 
needed  to  provide  vocational  training  for  the  vast  num- 
bers of  those  who  are  to  work  on  the  farm,  in  the  shop 
and  in  the  home  are  thus  developed,  the  specialization 
of  those  designed  to  teach  these  specific  subjects  will  be 
produced  by  normal  schools  and  normal  departments  in 
secondary  and  collegiate  schools,  as  now  teachers  are 
prepared  to  teach  the  general  school  subjects.  The 
preparation  of  teachers  will  be  the  great  problem  only 
during  the  period  of  rapidly  developing  vocational  edu- 
cation, and  during  that  period  wages  for  those  who  can 
successfully  introduce  these  subjects  will  be  relatively 
high  and  the  service  most  useful  and  attractive. 


CHAPTER  II 
FARMING  AS  A  VOCATION 

Farming  a  good  business. — Since  all  lines  of  human 
endeavor  are  open  to  free  competition,  people  flock  into 
any  vocation  which  temporarily  seems  especially  profit- 
able, and  they  as  quickly  leave  a  vocation  v^hich  becomes 
unprofitable,  all  industries  thus  being  kept  at  nearly  the 
average  in  opportunity.  The  law  of  supply  and  demand, 
in  the  main,  controls.  Farming  is,  on  the  whole,  a  con- 
servative line  of  business,  though  often  subject  to  severe 
variations  in  the  profit  it  affords.  In  farming,  few  men 
become  millionaires,  and  few  paupers.  It  is  not  a  line  of 
the  greatest  financial  opportunities  nor  of  the  greatest 
misfortunes.  Its  money  rewards  average  less  than  those 
of  the  average  city  vocations,  but  including  with  things 
money  will  buy,  those  things  money  will  not  purchase, 
or  for  which  cash  is  not  needed,  farming  furnishes  as 
much,  or  more,  on  the  average,  of  remuneration  as  does 
effort  applied  in  the  average  of  other  vocations.  In  con- 
ducting the  family-sized  farm,  the  minor  portion  of  the 
remuneration  comes  in  the  form  of  money,  while  good 
food,  clothing,  a  beautiful  home,  wholesome  outdoor  em- 
ployment, independence,  and  other  useful  and  enjoyable 
features  of  rural  life  constitute  the  larger  portion. 

State  benefited  by  a  strong  race  of  farmers. — The 
changed  conditions  of  modern  times  require  a  smaller 
proportion  of  the  whole  people  on  the  farms  than  for- 
merly; only  about  one-third  of  all  engaged  in  gainful 
operations  in  the  United  States  are  now  tillers  of  the 
soil,  and  the  indications  are  that  this  will  be  further 
reduced  to  one-fourth  of  the  whole,  when  the  ratio  must 
become   nearly   static.     Labor-saving   machinery   makes 

18 


14  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

it  possible  for  fewer  people  to  produce  the  food  and  raw 
material  of  clothing  required  for  all  classes  of  people 
than  formerly;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cities  re- 
quire more  workers  in  manufacturing  industries,  in  com- 
merce, in  transportation,  in  the  professions  and  in  special 
and  personal  service.  Standards  of  living  have  changed 
and  the  average  person  demands  much  more  of  the  non- 
agricultural  commodities  than  formerly,  while  the  amount 
of  foods  and  fibers  required  by  each  person  remains 
nearly  stationary.  The  satisfaction  of  these  increased 
demands  gives  profitable  employment  to  more  people  in 
the  cities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  average  farmer  can  pro- 
duce more  than  formerly,  because  of  better  methods  and 
machinery,  which  make  his  labor  more  efficient.  There 
is  a  constant  migration  of  the  farmers  to  the  cities, 
especially  to  the  large  cities  of  America  and  other 
civilized  countries,  and  nearly  all  cities  the  world  over 
are  growing  rapidly.  This  movement  from  land  to  town 
is  influenced  mainly  by  economic  conditions,  but  our 
educational  system  has  led  people  to  overestimate  the 
professions  and  to  undervalue  the  opportunities  of  such 
vocations  as  farming,  mechanics,  and  home  making, 
where  more  physical  labor  is  required. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  growth  of  farm  population  does 
not  keep  pace  with  the  city  population,  and  in  some 
localities,  as  in  New  England  and  Scotland,  the  actual 
number  of  farmers  is  much  smaller  than  formerly.  With 
the  advent  of  periods  of  better  times,  there  is  a  strong 
movement  of  farmers  to  the  cities.  This  movement  is 
temporarily  checked  by  panics,  or  periods  when  business 
is  depressed,  but,  as  the  decades  pass,  the  population  of 
the  cities  grows  faster  than  that  of  the  country,  because 
relatively  larger  numbers  find  employment  in  the  cities. 
This  movement  will  continue  as  long  as  the  needs  for 
workers  in  the  town  industries  and  professions  grow 
more  rapidly  than  do  the  needs  for  workers  in  the  rural 


FARMING   AS    A   VOCATION  15 

industries.  Some  people  prefer  the  associations  of  the 
towns  and  cities,  others  prefer  the  quiet,  independent 
and  healthful  life  on  the  farm.  There  are  larger  oppor- 
tunities in  the  cities  for  a  few  persons  Who  happen  to  be 
especially  gifted  in  business  or  as  specialists  in  given 
lines  of  work,  but  the  opportunities  of  the  country  aver- 
age as  well,  or  better,  than  the  opportunities  of  the  city 
and  the  chances  of  utter  failure  are  far  greater  in  the 
city  than  in  the  country. 

The  home  is  the  most  influential  institution  m  our 
national  life,  and  the  farm  home  is  the  best  place  to 
produce  strong  and  useful  citizens.  The  farm  home  is 
racially  our  most  important  home.  Farmers  are  rather 
conservative  and  are  peculiarly  loyal  to  the  good  of  the 
community.  Their  voice  usually  rings  true  for  sound 
and  good  government,  though  they  are  sometimes  slow 
to  embrace  improvements  in  governmental  affairs.  The 
Nation  needs  to  retain  men  and  women  on  our  rich  lands 
who  are  so  trained  as  citizens,  as  well  as  farmers,  as  to  be 
capable  of  maintaining  our  country  life  at  a  high  stand- 
ard. It  is  interested  in  the  farmer's  prosperity,  because 
the  general  well-being  of  the  rural  community  insures 
for  the  future  a  strong  race  of  people,  and  prosperity 
among  the  producing  classes  insures  prosperity  to  all 
classes  and  to  the  Nation.  Too  large  a  proportion  of 
the  whole  people  on  farms  is  not  desirable,  as  competi- 
tion in  the  production  of  farm  commodities  should  not 
be  so  strong  that  the  farm  family  cannot  secure  the 
profits  necessary  to  supply  not  only  good  food  and 
clothing,  but  to  provide  for  education,  books,  opportu- 
nities for  travel,  etc.  The  farmer's  sons  and  daughters 
need  to  be  well  fed  and  well  clothed,  and  not  only  taught 
industry  and  morality,  but  given  excellent  business  and 
educational  advantages  in  general,  and  taught  how  gradu- 
ally to  enrich  the  soil.  Improved  farm  machinery  and 
home    appliances,    and    better    methods,    have    aided    in 


1 6  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

vastly  improving  the  conditions  of  w^ork  and  living  on 
the  farm,  but  further  improvements  are  needed  to  keep 
country  life  apace  v^ith  the  rapidly  improving  life  of  the 
city. 

Studying  agriculture  is  interesting  and  useful. — A 
course  of  study  in  efficient  agricultural  schools  and  col- 
leges gives  much  pleasure,  because  the  studies  include 
interesting  things  in  nature,  in  business,  in  the  home  life, 
and  in  the  affairs  of  man  generally;  and  after  leaving 
school  for  practical  life,  the  student  finds  a  continuous 
source  of  very  great  pleasure  in  his  acquaintance  with 
the  practical  means  and  processes  of  nature,  and  in  his 
knowledge  of  how  better  to  work  with  man.  Nature's 
classics  are  not  in  a  man-made  book,  but  are  spread 
out  in  passive  and  active  forms  about  the  farm.  Each 
animal,  plant,  and  field  is  a  word,  a  sentence,  or  a  page. 
Each  day  is  a  chapter,  and  each  year  is  a  grand  book  full 
of  substantial  structures,  sturdy  industry,  exacting  duties, 
wonderful  opportunities,  noble  impulses,  interesting  life, 
gracious  friendships,  warm-hearted  loves,  and  the 
rhythmic  music  of  the  revolving  forces  and  spirits  of 
inanimate  and  animate  nature.  The  man  or  woman 
who  remains  in  country  life,  not  following  the  tide  to 
the  city,  receives  a  wonderful  inspiration  from  special 
study  in  an  agricultural  school. 

Methods  of  work  and  trade  relations  are  changing. 
Perfected  means  of  transportation  throw  each  farmer 
into  competition  with  all  the  world,  and  the  world 
has  learned  how  to  produce  all  things  more 
cheaply.  Intelligence,  coupled  with  business  capacity, 
is  even  more  of  an  advantage  in  farming  now  than  when 
prices  were  better  and  our  competitors  were  not  so 
earnestly  studying  all  the  questions  relating  to  their 
business.  The  American  farmer  gets  on  because  he  is 
enterprising.  If  his  neighbor  invents  a  machine  he 
makes  use  of  it.     If  some  enterprising  firm  manufactures 


FARMING   AS   A  VOCATION  I7 

this  machine  for  our  competitors  in  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, India,  or  some  other  country  where,  with  their 
cheaper  land  or  cheaper  labor,  they  can  undersell  us,  we 
must  find  a  still  better  machine  or  process  and  make 
profits  by  using  it  before  these  competitors  have  learned 
how.  We  must  keep  pace  in  intelligence  with  the  fore- 
most nations  of  the  world. 

Many  of  our  lands  are  losing  their  virgin  productivity, 
some  of  our  fields  are  becoming  infested  with  weeds, 
and  we  must  all  follow  the  example  of  our  best  farmers 
and  set  about  building  up  our  soils  to  a  standard  better 
than  their  original  fertility.  We  must  learn  newer  and 
better  methods  of  field  management  and  superior  ways 
of  handling  crops.  We  must  find  new  crops,'  new  uses 
of  old  crops,  and  we  must  improve  our  staple  crops.  We 
must  improve  our  live  stock  and  our  methods  of  rearing 
them.  We  must  make  the  best  possible  use  of  dairy  and 
other  animal  products,  and  we  must  learn  to  condense 
freights  and  market  our  produce  to  the  best  advantage; 
and  most  important  of  all,  we  must  learn  to  live  well,  and 
to  make  for  ourselves  and  our  families  the  best  that  our 
opportunities  will  afford. 

Farming  is  rising  in  the  scale  among  vocations. — 
Farming  is  becoming  established  on  a  firmer  basis; 
many  important  facts  are  being  discovered  concerning 
plants,  animals  and  soils,  and  a  great  many  mechanical 
devices  of  value  to  the  farmer  are  being  constantly 
developed.  Plans  of  farm  management  are  being  so 
perfected  that  farming  is  gradually  being  brought  out 
of  the  realm  of  mere  drudgery.  Farm  organization  is 
being  reduced  to  a  scientific  basis  similar  to  engineering. 
As  our  eyes  are  being  trained  to  see  the  interesting 
things  of  the  farm,  so  our  minds  are  being  educated  to 
appreciate  the  basal  facts  of  animal  and  plant  growth. 
And  as  our  knowledge  of  the  philosophy  of  farm  man- 
agement and  of  plant  and  animal  production  becomes 


1 8  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

more  concrete  and  practical,  we  become  awakened  to 
the  interesting  and  uplifting  features  of  country  life. 
As  we  learn  how  to  organize  and  manage  the  farm  home, 
how  to  develop  the  youthful  members  of  the  family  into 
useful  men  and  women,  as  we  become  masters  in  carry- 
ing out  the  everyday  practical  work  of  the  farm  and  the 
farm  home,  we  realize  the  advantages  of  life  in  the  coun- 
try. The  conditions  of  the  country  are  so  changing  that 
competition  is  drawing  closer  about  farm  production, 
and  exact  work  must  be  done  to  earn  comfortable  re- 
wards. On  the  other  hand,  the  rural  delivery  of  mails, 
rural  telephones,  better  roads,  bicycles,  carriages,  rural 
electric  railways,  books  and  papers  of  superior  quality 
and  at  reduced  prices,  are  coming  within  the  reach  of  all. 
Labor-saving  devices  on  the  farm  and  in  the  house,  im- 
proved breeds  of  plants  and  animals,  cheaper  clothing, 
lessened  cost  of  transportation,  and  other  advantages, 
which  have  come  with  modern  times,  also  make  farm 
life  still  more  desirable  and  the  farm  home  a  better  place 
for  the  development  of  character  in  the  boys  and  girls 
who  are  fortunate  in  passing  their  earlier  years  with 
sturdy  and  truthful  nature  rather  than  amid*  the  often 
adverse  conditions  obtaining  in  the  crowded  city. 
Farmers  who  are  really  equipped  to  take  advantage  of 
all  modern  facilities  will  reap  a  larger  reward  financially 
than  at  any  former  time. 


CHAPTER  III 
AGRICULTURAL   SUBSTANCES   CARRY    FORCE 

At  the  beginning  of  a  technical  study  of  agriculture 
the  student  needs  to  see  clearly  that  the  substances  of 
soil  and  air,  the  force  constantly  sent  to  the  earth  by 
the  sun,  the  organizing  forces  of  heredity  in  living 
plants  and  animals,  the  willing  and  the  directing  powers 
of  man  and  the  needs  of  the  human  race  are  the  five 
great  elemental  things  concerned  in  the  making  of  farm 
products.  The  nations  are  rapidly  awakening  to  the 
fact  that  scientific  research,  plant  and  animal  breeding, 
school  education,  extension  teaching  and  actual  demon- 
stration are  destined  very  greatly  to  increase  the  farm 
production  per  acre  and  per  farm  worker.  They  are 
beginning  to  invest  vast  sums  of  money  in  agricultural 
advancement  as  a  great  corporation  invests  in  improve- 
ments in  its  business.  The  farmers  are  arousing  them- 
selves to  the  full  value  of  new  knowledge,  superior  plant 
and  animal  forms,  and  to  systematic  training  for  the  call- 
ings of  farming  and  farm  home  making. 

Plant  compounds  are  storage  batteries. — Plant  materials 
consist  of  compounds  of  the  elements  gathered  from  the 
soil  and  air  and  stowed  away  during  their  growth.  It  may 
be  said  that  no  real  growth  has  been  made  by  a  plant 
until  the  green  appears  in  the  stem  or  leaf.  Before,  this, 
the  enlargement  of  the  plantlet  has  been  accomplished 
by  using  up  the  food  materials  stored  in  the  seed.  This 
leaf  green,  or  chlorophyll,  as  it  is  called,  is  made  of 
small  oblong  bodies  called  chloroplasts,  colored  green 
with  a  coloring  matter  termed  chlorophyll.  These 
chlorophyll  bodies  do  not  appear  in  plants  that  are  kept 
in  the  dark.     Seeds  and  roots  that  begin  growth  in  the 

9 


20  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

dark  will  grow  only  while  the  food  material  lasts  which 
is  stored  in  the  parent  seeds  or  roots. 

The  work  done  by  these  chlorophyll  bodies  in  the 
leaves,  aided  by  the  sunlight,  is  very  important.  The 
leaves  of  plants  are  very  complex  workshops,  or  labora- 
tories, and  here  the  substances  taken  from  the  soil  and 
air  by  the  plant  are  brought  together,  and  by  the  action 
of  the  sunlight  on  these  in  connection  with  the  chloro- 
phyll bodies,  the  plant  chemical  compounds  are  manu- 
factured. This  process  is  not  fully  understood,  but  we 
may  liken  these  compounds  of  which  the  plant  is  com- 
posed to  "  storage  batteries."  They  contain  a  definite 
amount  of  force  which  can  be  liberated  and  used.  When 
plants  are  burned,  the  heat  produced  comes  from  these 
"  storage  batteries,"  or  compounds.  Upon  burning,  the 
substances  coming  from  the  air  return  to  the  air  in  the 
form  of  a  gas  called  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO2)  ;  another 
small  portion  of  the  plant  called  mineral,  which  the  plant 
secured  from  the  soil,  is  left  as  ashes.  Water  in  the 
plant  is  also  changed,  upon  burning,  to  the  gas  we  call 
watery  vapor. 

The  force  or  energy  we  see  operating  in  the  world  has 
its  origin  in  the  sun.  Plants  are  able  to  absorb  from  the 
sun's  rays  some  of  this  force  and  store  it  in  latent  form 
in  the  compounds  of  which  they  are  made  up.  Animals 
eat  plants,  and  their  digestive  organs  in  breaking  up 
some  of  the  storage  batteries,  are  capable  of  setting  free 
some  of  this  force,  and  we  see  the  result  in  the  work 
they  do,  and  in  the  warmth  of  their  bodies.  They  trans- 
form some  of  the  plant  compound  into  animal  compound, 
and  these,  retaining  the  sun  force  stored  up  in  the  plant 
compounds,  become  animal  storage  batteries.  Animals  are 
not  capable  of  making  the  compounds  that  they  need  from 
the  elements  in  the  air  and  soil,  nor  of  storing  up  force 
from  the  sun.  They  must  depend  entirely  on  plants,  or 
in  case  of  carnivorous  animals,  on  animals  which  have 


AGRICULTURAL  SUBSTANCES   CARRY   FORCE  21 

eaten  plants.  So  we  have  the  true  saying,  "  All  flesh 
is  grass." 

But  the  reverse,  all  grass  is  flesh,  is  not  true, 
for  the  animal  is  not  able  to  use  all  the  compounds  of 
the  plant.  The  part  used  by  the  animal  depends  on 
several  things.  In  some  plants  the  compounds  are  much 
more  easily  broken  up  than  in  others,  and  the  animal 
secures  a  greater  amount  of  available  energy  than  from 
those  plants  where  a  considerable  portion  of  energy  is 
not  digested  or  where  the  process  of  digestion  consumes 
much  of  the  energy.  Certain  animals  have  better  diges- 
tive systems,  and  are  capable  of  breaking  up  more  of 
these  compounds  than  others.  When  food  is  plentiful 
the  animal  may  eat  more  than  is  necessary;  and  if  food 
is  scarce,  it  may  digest  the  plants  more  completely.  In 
either  case  the  animal  uses  the  compounds  as  fuel  in 
the  body  to  keep  up  body  heat,  to  produce  energy  for 
locomotion  and  other  vital  functions,  or  to  furnish  to  its 
young  as  milk.  The  parts  of  the  plants  eaten  that  can- 
not be  used,  are  excreted  as  waste. 

Latent  energy  in  plants  and  animals. — Energy  first 
stored  up  from  the  sun  by  the  plant  is  said  to  be  in  a 
latent  form.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  placing  a  par- 
tially melted  piece  of  ice  in  a  kettle  on  a  stove,  and 
beside  it  a  kettle  full  of  water,  both  being  at  the  freez- 
ing temperature  when  placed  over  the  fire.  Heat  is 
conducted  into  the  water  in  both  kettles,  but  the  water 
in  the  kettle  with  the  ice  remains  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture until  the  ice  is  melted,  while  the  water  in  the  other 
kettle  rises  in  temperature.  Heat  is  constantly  going 
into  each  mass  of  water.  In  one  it  is  stored  up  in  the 
latent  form,  that  is,  used  in  merely  changing  the  form 
of  the  water  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  without  causing  a 
rise  in  temperature.  In  the  other  it  is  stored  up  in  the 
active  form,  resulting  in  a  rapid  rise  in  temperature.  If 
the  two  kettles  are  now  placed  in  air  at  the  freezing 


22 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


temperature,  the  active  heat  from  the  hot  w^ater  w^ill 
again  be  given  off,  the  heat  radiating  into  the  colder 
surrounding  air,  while  none  will  be  given  off  from  the 

other  kettle  which  has 
remained  at  the  freezing 
temperature. 

The  coal  or  wood  used 
in  the  engine  has  heat, 
or  energy,  in  a  latent 
form,  and  by  setting  it 
on  fire  this  heat,  so  to 
speak,  is  extracted  from 
the  fuel,  while  the  com- 

Pteure.  1.    Engine  ^th  single  steam  chest.         ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^.^^  ^^^  ^^^j 

is  made  are  destroyed  or  broken  down  into  simpler  chem- 
ical compounds.  The  part  of  the  wood  which  the  tree 
got  from  the  soil  as  mineral  plant  food  is  left  on  the 
grate  when  we  use  the  wood  as  fuel,  and  we  call  it  ashes. 
That  part  of  the  fuel  which  the  plant  got  from  the  air 
becomes  gas  again,  and  goes  up  the  chimney  as  a  part  of 
the  smoke.  The  heat  gathered  from  the  sun's  rays  is 
liberated  from  the 
fuel  and  is  radiated,  or 
thrown  off.  It  may  be 
conducted  into  water 
in  the  boiler  of  the 
engine  and  cause  the 
water  to  expand  into 
steam.    When  the  heat 

irom  tne  lUel  m  tne  nre-  Figmc  2.     Ilie  tandem  compound  engine,  Figure 

•k-^,,      ,,^^^-      -i-U^      U^:^^■^  2,   has  a  second   steam  cliest,   which  uses  tlie  ex- 

DOX      under      tne      Doner  haust,    or    partially    used    steam,    from    the    first 

11                   J.             r            J  chest,  thus  securing  10  or  15  per  cent  more  energy 

has        been       tranSierred  out  of  the  steam  than  th©  engine  with  a  single 

,          ,*                   ,            .          .1  steam  chest. 

to    the    water    m    the 

boiler  and  has  changed  it  into  steam,  we  have  this 
force  in  a  very  active  form  expanding  the  steam. 
By   conducting   this   active    steam    to   the   cylinder    of 


AGRICULTURAL   SUBSTANCES   CARRY   FORCE  23 

an  engine  and  allowing  it  to  expend  its  force  on  the 
piston,  the  force,  or  energy,  which  was  liberated  from 
the  fuel  by  the  fire,  is  transferred  to  the  movement  of 
the  engine.  In  doing  this  the  steam  is  partially  con- 
densed, or  changed  again  to  water — the  heat  has  been 
liberated.  The  movement  or  power  produced  by  the 
steam  in  the  engine  may  be  conducted  by  means  of  a 
belt  to  a  mill  or  other  machinery,  or  to 
an  electric  dynamo,  where  the  force  is 


Figures.  Common  wheat,  chansfed   agfain    iuto   another   form   of 

The    average    yield    of    89  °  rr^   • 

samples  of  common  Blue  enersfy.      1  his     electricitv    here     een- 

Stem  wheat  grown  m  van-  "-^  ^  o 

?ro  P^"^^  if  o^K°°,f ?^  '°  erated    may    be    conducted    for    miles 

1902   was   18.3   bushels   per  J 

^"^-  over    wires,    turned    into    an    electric 

motor  and  used  as  power  for  various  purposes,  or  it  may 
be  made  again  to  give  up  its  energy  in  the  form  of  heat. 
This  heat  may  be  used  to  produce  steam  in  another 
boiler,  or  to  warm  houses,  or  it  may  be  changed  to  the 
form  of  light  in  an  electric  lamp  and  used  to  illuminate 
our  dwellings  and  streets. 

The  plant,  then,  is  a  storage  battery  in  which  is  stored 
up,  from  the  sun,  energy  which  may  be  appropriated  for 
use  by  animals.  Animals  having  incorporated  into  their 
bodies  many  of  these  plant  storage  batteries,  usually 
somewhat  changed  in  composition,  they  also  become 
reservoirs  of  energy.  If  man  eats  the  flesh  of  an  animal 
and  utilizes  its  force  in  the  form  of  labor,  he  is  simply 
drawing  upon  the  supply  of 
energy  that  the  plants  stored 
up  from  the  vast  resources  of 

-  Figure   4.    A    new   wheat   originated 

the    sun.  by  selection.    The  average  yield  of  89 

samples  of  Minnesota  No.  169,  a  newly- 

Sr^(^r^a^^Tt>•A     nlanfc     anrl    ^^ed  wheat,  originated  from  the  parent 
peCiailZea     piantS     ana    51^3  stem  shown  in  Figure  1,  grovra 
animal«         Tncf    qc    +Iip    murliin-    *°  various  parts  of  Minnesota  in  1902 

animaiS. just    as    tne    macnm-    under  similar  conditions  as  the  com- 

•    ■     ,     •  ,        •  ^l.^    U^:^^^    mon   wheat,    shown   in   Figure  3,   was 

ISt    tries    to    improve    the    boiler    21.5   bushels   per   acre,    an   increase  of 

d.t       .  1      11       1         .3.3  bushels,  or  18  per  cent. 

engine     that     shall     best 

receive  and  transmit  from  the  fuel  the  force  it  liberates 

upon  burning,  so  the  farmer  seeks  the  best  plants  with 


24 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT* 


which  to  gather  and  store  up  the  force  of  the  sun's  rays 
and  transmit  them  to  his  uses  whenever  wanted.  As  the 
electrician  seeks  the  most  economical  form  of  dynamo  to 
receive  the  force  transmitted  from  the  steam  engine,  so 
the  farmer   seeks   the   best   horse,   milch   cow,   or  other 


^•N5iSf:^'55ppi*^a.^^ 


f'im^ 


animal  that  shall  in  the 
most  economical  manner 
receive  the  force  from  the 
plants  and  transmit  it  to 
whatever  use  may  be  de- 
sired. Some  chemical  com- 
pounds, within  the  plant  or 
animal,  form  storage  bat- 
Figure  5.  The  net  returns  from  Ethel,  ferifc;  nf  murh  cr  r  p  n  +  a  t 
when  used  in  the  dairy,  a  cow  bred  mainly  '"^^  ^^^  ^^  IIIULII  greater 
for  beef,  for  one  year,  figuring  butter,  skim  rinwTP'ra  fh^n  nflnprc  TViiic 
milk  and  feed  at  market  prices,  in  1895.  puwcrb  Illdn  OinerS,  1  nUS, 
was  $9.92.    Haecker.  f  ^  ^  5      h  a  V  C      nearly      tWO 

and  one-half  times  as  much  latent  heat,  or  power,  stored 
up  in  a  given  weight  as  have  starches  and  sugars,  or  the 
substance  of  cell  walls  of  plants,  called  cellulose.  Vari- 
ous compounds  called  proteins  are  also  rated  high  in 
value,  because  in  addition  to  supplying  energy  they 
nourish  the  muscles,  nerves,  bones,  etc.  Plants  which 
are  bred  so  as  to  have  a  large  percentage  of  protein  and 
fat  compounds  have  a  spe- 
cial value,  because  they  con- 
tain much  more  available 
latent  energy  than  do  those 
not  so  bred.  In  like  man- 
ner, animals  that  are  so  well 
bred  that  their  carcasses  of 
beef,  mutton  or  pork  have  a 
larger  percentage  of  the 
high-priced  lean  meat  are 
especially  valuable  because 
of  the  larger  amounts  of  these  more  useful  forms  of 
"  storage  batteries."    The  dairy  cow  which  transforms 


figure  6.  The  nel  returns  from  Houston, 
a  specially  bred  dairy  cow,  for  one  year, 
figuring  butter,  skim  milk  and  feed  at 
market  prices  in  1895.  was  $58.33. 
Haecker. 


AGRICULTURAL  SUBSTANCES    CARRY   FORCE  25 

most  of  her  food  into  the  vakiable  butter  fats,  storing 
up  a  minimum  amount  in  the  form  of  protein  in  her 
milk,  or  as  a  padding  of  fatty  tissue  on  her  body,  is  the 
best  machine  for  transferring  a  large  portion  of  energy 
from  the  pasture  or  grain  bin  into  the  valuable  product, 
butter. 

The  illustrations  shown  in  Figs,  i  to  6,  inclusive,  may 
serve  to  show  differences  in  engines,  plants  and  animals 
as  to  their  effectiveness  in  changing  latent  energy  into 
active  forms  useful  to  man.  They  emphasize  the  great 
importance  of  properly  understanding  the  relation  exist- 
ing between  latent  and  active  energy  as  related  to  agri- 
culture. 

The  sciences  related  to  agriculture. — The  theories  and 
facts  of  science  have  been  grouped  around  the  great 
divisions  of  nature.  Thus,  there  is  the  science  of  plants, 
the  science  of  animals,  and  the  science  of  minerals.  The 
division  of  knowledge  into  groups  continues  with  the 
accumulation  of  facts,  until  there  are  many  sciences. 
Some  of  these  deal  mainly  with  the  facts  without  direct 
reference  to  the  utility  of  the  facts,  while  most  sciences 
ultimately  affect  some  economic  interest.  Agriculture 
has  been  wonderfully  aided  by  the  sciences,  many  of 
which  have  a  very  close  relation  to  agricultural  produc- 
tion and  to  the  life  of  the  farm  home. 

In  a  general  way  the  sciences  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes :  The  physical  sciences,  which  deal  with  the 
facts  and  laws  of  matter  in  which  life  may  or  may  not 
take  part;  and  the  biological  sciences,  which  deal  only 
with  living  forms,  both  plants  and  animals.  Among  the 
physical  sciences  the  following  are  especially  useful  to 
agriculture:  Mathematics,  physics,  mechanics,  electric- 
ity, chemistry,  geology  and  meteorology.  Since  the 
biological  sciences  treat  of  the  life  of  the  animal  and  the 
plant  kingdoms,  they  are  equally  useful  and  important, 
for  they  throw  light  upon  many  things  which  have  a 


26  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

practical  bearing  upon  plant  and  animal  production,  such 
as  heredity,  variation,  selection,  and  the  development  of 
species,  varieties  or  breeds.  Some  of  the  more  general 
biological  sciences  are  botany,  bacteriology,  zoology, 
entomology  and  breeding. 

Mathematics  is  the  most  exact  of  all  the  sciences.  It 
deals  v^ith  the  measurement  and  relations  of  quan- 
tities, and  by  symbols  and  processes  treats  of  numbers,  as 
in  arithmetic  and  algebra,  and  of  space,  as  in  geometry. 
Mathematics  is  applied  to  all  the  physical  and  biological 
sciences,  and  is  used  in  all  industries  and  professions. 
Like  all  the  more  practical  subjects,  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics not  only  develops  mental  vigor,  but  also  gives 
valuable  facts. 

Physics,  in  its  specific  sense,  deals  with  the  phenomena 
of  matter,  and  with  the  energy  which  accompanies  mat- 
ter, excluding  the  phenomena  peculiar  to  living  matter, 
biology,  and  the  phenomena  peculiar  to  elemental  forms 
of  matter,  chemistry.  Physics  treats  of  the  constitution 
and  properties  of  matter,  of  mechanics,  acoustics,  heat, 
light,  electricity  and  magnetism.  A  study  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  physics,  illustrated  at  every  possible 
point  by  its  use  in  explaining  mechanical  contrivances, 
soils,  feeding  and  other  questions  in  agricultural  prac- 
tice, is  proving  most  useful  as  a  means  of  general  mind- 
training  and  of  acquiring  useful  facts. 

Mechanics  treats  of  the  phenomena  caused  by  the  action 
of  energy,  or  force,  on  material  bodies.  It  considers  the 
phenomena  of  static  bodies  of  matter  with  their  latent 
energy,  and  kinetic  bodies  with  their  dynamic  forces 
operating.  Applied  mechanics  deals  with  the  invention, 
construction,  care  and  use  of  all  kinds  of  structures, 
machines  and  devices.  The  people  of  the  world  are 
housed,  clothed,  fed,  transported  and  supplied  with  in- 
formation and  luxuries  in  far  greater  amount  and  with 
far  less  cost  of  time  and  effort  because  of  the  development 


AGRICULTURAL  SUBSTANCES   CARRY   FORCE  2/ 

of  mechanics.  Theoretical  mathematicians  and  physicists 
by  their  researches,  and  inventors,  have  given  the  basic 
ideas  for  the  development  of  practical  mechanics.  The 
scientist  and  the  practical  man  have  alike  contributed  to 
our  sum  of  mechanical  knowledge  and  to  our  collection 
of  mechanical  appliances. 

Electficity  deals  with  one  form  of  the  invisible  force  of 
inorganic  and  organic  substances  which  manifests  itself 
in  many  ways,  and  which  is  rendered  active  by  some 
molecular  disturbance,  as  from  friction,  rupture,  or  chem- 
ical action.  The  laws  of  the  generation,  storage,  trans- 
portation and  use  of  this  power  and  {he  mechanical  ap- 
pliances driven  by  it  furnish  subject  matter  for  school 
studies  and  laboratory  practice  alike  practical  and  useful 
for  mental  training. 

Chemistry  is  that  branch  of  the  physical  sciences  which 
treats  of  the  minutiae  of  substances,  as  of  their  atoms, 
their  molecules,  the  relations  these  units  sustain  to  each 
other  within  substances  with  simple  and  compound 
molecules  and  the  manner  in  which  molecules  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  are  constructed.  Theoretical  chemistry 
deals  with  the  laws  governing  chemical  action,  while 
applied  chemistry  treats  of  the  relations  of  these  laws  to 
agriculture,  medicine,  mining,  sanitation,  etc.  Physics 
and  chemistry  overlap  or  dovetail,  as  do  all  related 
sciences,  and  classification  cannot  make  straight  lines 
where  nature  has  not  made  them.  Classification,  as  in 
books,  is  only  to  aid  us  in  better  organizing  our 
thoughts. 

Geology  treats  of  the  constitution  and  structure  of  the 
earth,  the  operation  of  its  physical  forces,  the  history  of 
its  development,  including  the  causes  and  modes  of 
changes  it  has  passed  through,  and  the  occurrence  and 
development  of  organisms.  It  embraces  physical  geog- 
raphy in  part,  but  is  not  concerned  with  political 
geography.     It  includes  a  study  of  the  successive  layers 


28  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  meaning  of  the  fossil 
evidences  of  living  things  in  each  layer  is  considered. 
It  gives  the  relation  of  the  slov^ly  developed  organic  life 
through  the  geological  ages  to  the  plant  and  animal 
forms  now  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  has  very  prac- 
tical relations  to  studies  of  soils,  farm  management,  and 
to  plant  and  animal  production,  as  well  as  to  mining  and 
many  lines  of  engineering.  The  study  of  this  subject  is 
peculiarly  broadening,  in  that  it  gives  the  mind  a  view  of 
the  development  of  life  under  a  process  of  gradual 
natural  evolution. 

Meteorology  treats  of  the  phenomena  of  the  atmos- 
phere, especially  those  that  relate  to  climate.  This 
very  difficult  subject  is  slowly  being  brought  into  a  form 
adapted  to  a  school  study,  and  as  a  practical  science  it 
is  being  developed  so  as  to  make  weather  prediction 
very  useful. 

Botany  has  grown  to  be  a  wonderful  science.  The 
many,  many  thousand  species  of  plants  are  being 
classified  and  named,  and  the  functions  of  the 
parts  of  plants  are  being  worked  out.  New  facts  as  to 
the  best  places  and  plans  for  growing  and  cultivating 
each  useful  plant,  are  being  brought  to  light.  Plant 
breeders  are  studying  the  laws  of  heredity,  and  so  im- 
proving the  crops  of  the  field,  garden  and  forest  that 
yields  are  increased,  and  the  quality  of  the  products 
improved.  New  beauties  are  added  to  flowers  and  foli- 
age ;  new  flavors  to  fruits  and  vegetables ;  and  new 
qualities  to  fibers  and  woods.  New  ways  of  propagat- 
ing, cultivating  and  feeding  plants  are  discovered,  and 
the  methods  of  harvesting,  preserving  and  utilizing  plant 
products  in  the  home  and  in  the  factory  are  becoming  so 
numerous  as  to  be  fairly  bewildering. 

The  study  of  the  life  histories  of  fungi,  such  as 
molds,  rusts  and  other  minute  plants,  is  doing  a  great 
deal  to  aid  farmers  in  combating  fungous  diseases  of 


AGRICULTURAL   SUBSTANCES    CARRY   FORCE  29 

plants  and  animals,  and  in  making  use  of  some  of  these 
minute  plants  for  economic  purposes.  These  plants 
have  no  flowers  or  seeds  such  as  larger  plants  have,  and 
usually  a  microscope  must  be  used  to  work  out  their 
life  histories. 

The  farmer  who  does  not  seek  to  learn  the  interesting 
things  about  plants  is  constantly  losing  a  large  part  of 
the  enjoyment  which  nature  has  made  so  abundantly 
available  to  him.  Facts  about  plants  which  are  avail- 
able in  books  on  botany,  horticulture  and  agriculture, 
and  taught  in  agricultural  schools,  are  of  great  value  to 
those  who  till  the  soil. 

Bacteriology  has  brought  to  light  a  world  of  important 
facts  regarding  the  many  germs  which  breed  disease 
in  plant  and  animal  bodies,  which  cause  decay  in  dead 
organic  substances,  which  aid  in  elaborating  plant  food 
from  soil  and  air,  which  assist  in  transforming  the  food 
in  the  digestive  canal  of  the  animal,  and  in  many  other 
ways  take  part  in  plant  and  animal  production.  Bac- 
teria and  other  very  small  organisms  are  so  simple  in 
their  structure  that  it  is  difficult  to  class  them  with 
animals  or  plants;  they  are  so  simple  that  they  have 
not  the  special  organs  or  functions  of  either. 

Zoology. — The  science  of  animal  life  is  full  of  inter- 
esting things.  There  is  no  study  more  profoundly  inter- 
esting than  that  of  the  development  of  species  in  animals 
and  in  plants.  Every  species  of  animal  has  a  different 
life  history,  and  many  of  its  habits,  when  known,  are 
very  interesting.  The  anatomy,  or  structure,  and  the 
physiology,  or  functional  activities,  of  each  species  of 
wild,  and  especially  of  domesticated,  animals  is  of  inter- 
est. The  experiment  station  officers  and  others  are 
working  out  methods  of  feeding,  breeding  and  managing 
live  stock  that  are  of  great  value  to  the  farmer. 

Entomology, — This  division  of  zoology  deals  with  in- 
sects   and    Is    full    of    interesting    facts.       Descriptive 


30  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

entomology  tells  of  the  life  histories  of  the  various 
insects,  and  the  stories  of  the  work  of  these  w^on- 
derful  little  creatures  are  full  of  interesting  surprises. 
The  patient  entomologists  have  worked  out  methods 
of  combating  many  injurious  insects  and  have  learned 
that  many  of  them  are  by  nature  our  friends  and  should 
be  protected.  A  knowledge  of  how  to  combat  those 
that  obtain  their  food  by  sucking  the  juice  out  of 
plants  and  those  that  chew  their  food  is  both  interesting 
and  useful  to  the  farmer. 

The  agricultural  sciences. — While  the  practice  of  agri- 
culture is  mainly  art,  agricultural  science  is  becoming 
the  most  wonderful  of  sciences,  in  part  because  nearly 
all  the  other  sciences  contribute  to  agricultural  science. 
Only  recently  have  the  facts  of  agricultural  theory  and 
practice  been  brought  together  in  a  systematically  ar- 
ranged form.  A  literature  of  scientific,  practical  agricul- 
ture is  being  written,  most  varied  in  kind,  most  wonder- 
ful in  extent,  most  interesting  in  character,  and  most 
useful  in  its  economic  relations.  No  other  science  in- 
terests so  many  people,  nor  are  the  lives  and  work  of 
any  other  industrial  class  brought  so  close  to  the  laws, 
the  forces,  the  materials,  and  the  enjoyable  objects  of 
nature. 

The  principal  subjects  under  which  a  knowledge  of 
farming  is  obtained  are :  Agriculture,  or  agronomy,  the 
study  of  field  agriculture ;  horticulture,  the  study  of 
garden  and  orchard  crops ;  animal  industry,  the  study 
of  animal  production ;  dairy  industry,  the  study  of  dairy 
stock,  dairy  production  and  dairy  manufacturing;  vet- 
erinary science,  the  study  of  the  diseases  and  hygiene  of 
animals ;  breeding,  the  study  of  how  to  originate  animals 
and  plants  with  heredity  which  will  produce  higher 
economic  and  artistic  values;  agricultural  chemistry, 
the  study  of  the  chemistry  of  soils,  plants  and  animals; 
and  rural  engineering,  the  study  of  machines,  buildings, 
roads,  drainage,  etc.,  relating  to  the  farm. 


AGRICULTURAL  SUBSTANCES   CARRY   FORCE  3 1 

Agricultural  technology. — This  group  includes  a  study 
of  manufacturing  as  related  to  agriculture,  such  as 
sugar  making,  slaughtering  animals,  manufacturing 
commercial  fertilizers,   textile  manufactures,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IV 
GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  EARTH 

Plants  and  animals  have  developed  from  lower  forms. 

— The  generally  accepted  theory  is  that  at  one  time  the 
earth's  surface  was  of  solid  rock,  but  the  action  of  wind, 
water,  glaciers,  earthquakes,  heat,  cold  and  other  forces, 
during  many  ages,  has  broken  up  this  surface  into 
smaller  particles  which  form  the  larger  part  of  our  soil 
as  we  see  it  today. 

Some  of  the  lower  forms  of  plant  life  which  live 
largely  from  the  elements  of  the  air,  at  first  grew  upon 
the  rocky  surfaces  and  on  the  pulverized  surface  ma- 
terials, and  gradually  deposited  small  amounts  of  organic 
matter  which,  together  with  the  disintegrated  soil  par- 
ticles, formed  rich  soils  on  which  higher  plants  and 
animals  could  grow.  As  the  ages  passed  a  large  growth 
of  plants  developed  on  the  surface,  and  the  organized 
matter  of  decaying  plants,  mixed  with  fine  particles  of 
earth,  helped  make  a  productive  soil. 

In  many  places  the  rains  washed  these  plant  and 
animal  remains  into  streams,  and,  together  with  par- 
ticles of  soil,  they  were  deposited  along  the  river  beds 
or  deltas  in  layers.  Where  earthquakes,  the  washing 
of  water  or  other  influences  have  operated  to  expose  the 
edges  of  these  layers,  the  geologist  has  studied  and 
unraveled  the  history  of  the  layers  of  earth.  Sur- 
face layers  which  have  been  formed  in  compar- 
atively recent  times  are  found  to  contain  the 
fossil  forms  of  the  plants  and  animals  now  living  on  the 
earth.  As  he  goes  deeper  among  the  older  deposits,  the 
geologist  finds  many  lower  forms  of  animals  and  plants, 
of  some  of  which  no  living  representatives  have   ever 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   EARTH  33 

been  found.  In  certain  layers  it  is  found  that  given 
kinds  of  animals  or  plants  are  more  abundant  than  in 
others,  and  thus  definite  periods  of  ages  are  marked  off 
in  successive  layers,  as  the  Devonian  age,  when  fish 
forms  of  life  were  most  abundant.  The  Carboniferous 
age  is  marked  by  the  enormous  growth  of  lower  forms 
of  plants  which  have  given  us  the  large  coal  fields.  But 
the  most  important  of  all  the  teachings  of  this  wonder- 
ful history  is,  that  our  present  forms  of  plants  and 
animals  have  ascended  from  lower,  simpler  and  inferior 
forms,  and  that  we  may  expect  to  find  this  process  still 
continuing. 

All  the  things  about  us  that  have  in  no  way  been 
modified  by  man  we  call  natural,  and  the  wonderful 
things  taught  by  them  we  call  natural  history.  This 
natural  history  is  a  wonderful  book  and  we  see  about 
us  in  living  things  and  in  rocks,  hills  and  rivers 
its  most  recently  written  pages.  One  of  the  most  in- 
teresting facts  is  the  evidences  in  the  layers  of  rock, 
slate,  clay,  etc.,  of  the  great  age  of  our  world,  or  the  long 
time  covered  by  natural  history.  There  are  several 
theories  as  to  how  our  planet  came  to  have  the  shape 
and  size  that  it  has,  but  there  is  much  evidence  that  in 
the  beginning  the  earth  was  very  hot.  According  to 
this  theory,  part  of  the  water  now  in  the  seas,  rivers  and 
earth  was  in  the  atmosphere  as  gas.  As  the  cycles  of 
centuries  rolled  on,  the  earth  gradually  became  cooler. 
A  part  of  the  water  fell  on  the  surface.  As  the  surface 
of  the  earth  lost  its  heat,  it  would  crack  and  part  of  the 
water  would  rush  in,  the  heat  being  so  intense  as  to 
form  such  volumes  of  steam  that  terrific  explosions  took 
place.  As  the  surface  cooled  sufficiently,  it  was  found 
that  the  very  first  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life 
appeared,  but  the  earth  was  not  in  a  settled  form  even 
when  these  appeared,  for  the  geologist  finds  in  the 
layers  of  rocks  of  elevated  regions  the  remains  of  plants 


34  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

and  animals  that  have  lived  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
This  shows  that  forces  are  at  work  which  are  con- 
tinually modifying  the  physiography  of  the  earth,  level- 
ing some  parts  and  elevating  other  parts  above  their 
original  position.  The  rains  falling  on  the  high  places 
of  the  earth's  surface  washed  the  looser  particles  to  the 
low  places  and  with  them  the  forms  of  life  that  then 
existed,  thus  leaving  a  record  of  the  times  in  the  fossils 
preserved  in  the  layers  thus  formed.  In  some  cases  a 
deposit  of  earlier  records  has  been  raised  and  washed 
down  a  second  time,  and  here  the  record  is  confused,  for 
a  layer  of  rock  or  clay  may  thus  contain  forms  that 
existed  centuries  apart  in  point  of  time. 

We  think  of  the  earth  as  being  very  stable,  but  crustal 
disturbances,  as  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  occur  fre- 
quently at  many  parts  of  the  globe.  The  formation  of 
mountain  ranges  is  wonderful  and  can  be  appreciated 
only  by  those  who  have  been  on  the  mountains  and  have 
been  awed  by  their  stupendous  proportions.  These 
mountain  ranges  may  be  accounted  for,  in  part,  by  the 
fact  that  the  earth  is  cooling  from  the  outside  toward 
its  center,  and,  as  it  loses  heat,  it  becomes  smaller  and 
the  surface,  being  hard,  bulges  up  in  places  and  settles 
down  in  others,  as  does  the  rind  of  an  apple  when  it  is 
drying. 

Development  of  present  land  surfaces. — The  layers  of 
the  earth  which  are  now  exposed  have  been  modified 
not  only  by  the  action  of  heat  and  cold,  wind  and  water, 
but  also  by  animals  and  plants.  During  recent 
geological  times  great  changes  in  temperature  have 
caused  immense  collections  of  ice,  called  glaciers,  to  lie 
upon  and  flow  or  glide  very  slowly  over  large  areas  of 
land  near  the  north  and  south  poles  of  the  globe.  These 
glaciers,  which  once  pushed  much  farther  out  from  the 
poles  toward  the  equator  than  now,  have  done  much  to 
transport  the  particles  of  soil  from  place  to  place,  mix- 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   EARTH  35 

ing  the  stony  substances  together,  or  depositing  them  in 
layers,  as  the  case  might  be.  Water  and  winds  have  also 
done  much  in  this  mixing  of  soils.  In  moist,  low  places 
vegetation  has  grown  and  been  preserved  by  water  cov- 
ering it,  and  thus  collected  into  beds  of  peat.  Peat  beds 
thus  made  in  former  times,  and  afterward  covered  with 
clay,  in  some  cases  have  been  gradually  transformed 
into  coal. 

In  other  places,  where  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  com- 
posed of  solid  rock,  of  hard  stones,  or  even  of  gravel  or 
sand,  which  does  not  easily  decay,  vegetation  has  not 
been  able  to  grow  and  the  surface  is  still  bare  and  not 
hospitable  to  plants.  Between  these  two  extremes, 
where  soils  have  been  made  of  clay  or  of  a  mixture  of 
clay  and  sand  and  other  materials,  plants  have  found  a 
congenial  home.  The  soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant 
food ;  they  are  rich  in  humus  or  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and,  therefore,  able  to  hold  moisture,  and  to  provide 
bacterial  and  other  agencies  which  aid  in  producing 
conditions  suitable  for  the  feeding  by  the  plant  roots. 
In  some  places  these  congenial  soils  are  formed  by  the 
rock  decaying  where  it  lies;  in  other  places  they  are 
formed  by  the  water  washing  particles  from  many 
places,  thus  mixing  them  together  and  spreading  them 
out  in  layers  ready  to  form  the  home  of  plants.  In 
other  places  the  winds  bring  together  soil  particles  in  a 
mixture  which  is  adapted  to  the  growth  of  plants. 

Igneous  rocks  (rocks  that  are  formed  from  the  molten 
lava  from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  or  that  at  least  have 
been  heated)  are  found  at  many  places  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  as  where  they  were  poured  through  volcanoes 
or  oozed  out  through  openings  on  the  earth's  crust. 
Sand  and  gravel  are  found  in  other  places  where  they 
have  been  deposited  by  the  action  of  water.  All  these 
form  inhospitable  soils.  The  granitic  and  other  igneous 
rocks  are  not  open  to  the  penetration  of  plant  roots,  and 


36  FARM '  DEVELOPMENT 

sand    and    gravel    are    not    suitable    soils    from    which 
plants  can  secure  food. 

The  glacial  period. — Beginning  tens  of  thousands  of 
years  ago,  and  continuing,  perhaps,  ten  thousand  years, 
a  most  important  occurrence  of  vast  proportions  hap- 
pened  to   the   north   temperate   zone   of  the   earth.     At 
least  this  occurrence  was  important  for  the  welfare  of 
man  in  his  present  state,  because  it  served  as  a  stu- 
pendous motor  to  provide  immense  areas  of  finely  pul- 
verized  mixed  soils  suited  to   growing  valuable   crops. 
Owing  to  some  astronomical  or  geological  phenomenon 
not  well  understood,  the  sun  failed  to  heat  this  zone  as 
had  been  its  custom  before,  or  as  it  does  at  present,  and 
the  climate  became  as  cold  in  Maine  or  Minnesota  as 
it  is  at  the   present  time   near   the   north   pole.     From 
Missouri  northward  in  America,  and  in  a  similar  zone 
in  Eurasia,  was  a  region  of  perpetual  snow.     The  rain 
and   snowfall   of  each   season   was   added  to   the   layer 
which   fell   the   year   before,    and   thus   there   gradually 
accumulated  a  sheet  of  snow  and  ice  hundreds  of  feet 
thick,    extending    southward    far    into    the    Mississippi 
valley   basin   in   America   and   another   sheet   extending 
into  the   central   part  of  Eurasia.     This   sheet  of  accu- 
mulated snow  and  ice  was  called  the  great  glacier.     In 
the  beginning  the  zone  of  perpetual  snow  of  the  arctic 
circle   gradually   extended   southward   as  the   cold   con- 
tinued  to    increase   from    age   to   age.     The   cold   crept 
southward  and  extended  the  southern  edge  of  the  region 
of  perpetual   snow.     The  annual   fall   of   ice   and   snow 
continued  to  accumulate  and  finally  extended  southward 
in  the  United  States,  as  shown  by  the  map  in  Figure  7, 
reaching  to  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  rivers.     It  is  not 
thought  that  this  movement  took  place  rapidly  or  even 
regularly,  as  during  some  ages  the  cold  would  increase 
more  rapidly  than  at  other  times,  then  again,  the  cold 
would  not  increase  but  would  even  decrease. 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   EARTH  37 

The  snow  and  rain  accumulations  had  become  pressed 
into  a  solid  sheet  of  ice,  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of 
feet  in  thickness.  We  would  expect  that  this  ice  would 
lie  quietly  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  it  is  found 
that  ice  will  flow  to  a  lower  level,  as  will  water,  though 
very  slowly.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by  pressing  a 
chunk  of  ice  in  a  very  strong  box  which  it  does  not 
quite  fit.  By  placing  an  immense  pressure  on  the 
chunk,  it  will  gradually  bend  or  mold  itself  to  fit  into 
all  the  corners  of  the  box  without  apparently  breaking, 
thus  illustrating  that  under  heavy  pressure  ice  will  flow 
like  a  liquid,  moving,  of  course,  only  very  slowly.  That 
great  sheets  of  ice  do  actually  move,  or  flow,  is  shown 
by  the  great  ice  sheets  now  known  to  be  moving  down 
the  valleys  in  Greenland  and  the  Alps,  and  in  other 
regions  of  perpetual  snow.  In  Greenland  the  ice  is 
shoved  out  over  the  water,  and  there  the  weight,  assisted 
somewhat  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  causes  great  pieces 
of  the  ice  sheet  to  break  oflf,  which  float  out  into  the 
ocean  as  icebergs.  It  is  even  found  that  ice  flows  faster 
in  the  center  of  its  path  down  the  valleys  than  it  does 
near  the  edges,  just  as  water  flows  more  rapidly  in  the 
center  of  the  river  than  where  it  is  retarded  by  coming 
in  contact  with  the  shore  or  bottom. 

The  states  north  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  rivers 
were  practically  all  covered  by  the  great  glacier.  The 
Mississippi  valley  was  then  much  as  it  is  now,  the  ele- 
vated plains  toward  the  Rocky  Mountains  preventing  the 
ice  sheet  from  flowing  in  that  direction.  The  higher  land 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alleghanies  also  prevented  the  ice  sheet 
from  flowing  over  against  those  mountains.  There  were, 
also,  other  occasional  higher  portions  of  the  earth,  as 
around  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Dubuque,  Iowa,  where  the  glacier  did  not  flow 
over  the  land.  There  was  stored  up  in  this  immense 
sheet  of  ice  a  large  amount  of  water,  which,  during  the 


38  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

period  of  melting  and  recession  of  the  yet  moving  south 
edge  of  the  glacier,  v^as  added  to  the  annual  rainfall  and 
greatly  enlarged  the  streams  flowing  into  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  the  drainage  of  this  whole  region  was  very 
different  from  what  we  see  at  present.  Now  only  a  part 
of  the  annual  rainfall  must  find  its  way  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This  excess  of  water  during  the  recession  of  the 
glacier  is  illustrated  by  a  spring  rain  melting  the  snow, 
combining  the  rain  and  the  snow  water  into  a  flood. 
The  front  edge  of  the  glacier,  instead  of  being  a  straight 
line,  was  very  irregular.  Great  streams,  or  fingers,  of 
ice  flowed  south  through  the  valleys  and  lower  areas,  in 
advance  of  the  general  body  of  the  glacier.  The  reces- 
sion was  sufficiently  rapid,  in  spite  of  the  slow  forward 
movement  of  the  frozen  water,  so  that  the  ice  which 
flowed  to  a  given  point,  and  there  melted,  added  an 
immense  amount  of  water  to  the  usual  rainfall.  All 
this  water  swelled  the  streams  in  the  midsummer  so 
that,  instead  of  the  small  streams  winding  through  the 
flats  in  our  valleys,  there  were  rushing  torrents  rising 
nearly  to  the  tops  of  the  present  bluffs,  which  were  then 
banks  of  the  large  streams. 

Many  neighborhoods  in  the  states  mentioned  have 
very  interesting  illustrations  of  how  the  glacier  and  the 
large  volume  of  water  from  the  melting  glacier  operated 
in  modifying  the  land  surface.  Every  citizen  of  such 
regions  should  study  the  glacial  geology  so  as  to  be  able, 
by  observation,  to  understand  the  phenomena  presented 
by  the  surface  features  in  his  own  neighborhood. 

Glacial  drift  or  till. — Prior  to  the  time  of  the  glacier 
there  was  loose  soil,  rock,  sand,  clay,  etc.,  covering  the 
underlying  rocks  of  the  region  over  which  the  glacier 
flowed.  The  ice,  in  flowing  over  this  surface,  gathered 
up  much  of  the  loose  clay,  sand  and  stones,  and  also  tore 
loose  and  ground  up  more  of  the  underlying  rocks.  This 
whole  mass  was  made  finer  by  the  immense  forces  in 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   EARTH  39 

Operation,  and  when  the  ice  melted  this  material  was 
deposited  along  the  margin  of  the  glacier.  Where  the 
recession  of  the  ice  sheet  was  gradual,  the  debris  was 
laid  out  in  rather  level  sheets  over  the  surface  of  the 
earth  and  is  now  called  by  the  geologists  drift  or  till. 
In  some  places  this  material  still  lies  as  it  was  deposited, 
with  fine  and  coarse  particles  mixed,  but  in  many  places 
the  water  flowing  from  the  melting  glacier  washed  the 
drift  about,  often  making  great  valleys  through  which 
the  streams  could  run.  The  material  which  was  thus 
washed  about  by  the  water,  was  usually  left  assorted 
and  in  layers,  just  as  the  stream  on  the  hillside  carries 
forward  gravel  and  small  stones,  particles  of  sand  and 
clay,  depositing  the  heaviest  particles  first.  The  finer 
particles  of  clay  and  silt  are  often  carried  long  dis- 
tances before  they  are  deposited  in  the  quiet  waters  of 
some  lake  or  large  stream.  Since  the  fine  particles  were 
carried  out  in  the  water  beyond  where  the  coarser  par- 
ticles were  deposited,  the  clay  is  usually  found  above  the 
stones,  gravel  and  sand. 

The  formation  of  morainic  hills. — In  some  instances, 
owing  to  temporary  cessation  in  the  increasing  warmth, 
the  glacier,  instead  of  receding  with  regularity,  stopped 
for  a  time,  or  even  again  progressed  for  a  period.  The 
melting  taking  place  only  as  rapidly  as  the  ice  flow 
proceeded,  in  case  the  front  edge  of  the  glacier  remained 
stationary,  there  was  naturally  much  debris  left  in  the 
place  where  the  ice  melted,  for  the  ice  always  carried 
within  its  body  stones  and  finer  particles  of  earth.  In 
this  way  ranges  of  hills  were  formed.  These  are  called 
moraines,  of  which  there  is  an  example  in  southwestern 
Minnesota,  called  the  Coteau  Hills,  and  many  others  in 
the  states  over  which  the  glacier  flowed. 

Unassorted  till  formed  good  soils. — Where  the  glacier 
dropped  its  debris  in  such  a  way  that  we  find  no  distinct 
laminae  or  layers,  the  geologists  call  it  *  till,"  or  "  unaS' 


40  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

sorted  till."  Where  water  flowing  from  the  melting  ice 
washed  the  loose  materials  about  and  deposited  them  in 
layers  of  clay,  silt,  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  the  geologists  call  it 
"  assorted  till."  Some  of  the  best  soils  are  those  where 
the  glacial  till  is  unassorted.  The  farmers  of  the  middle 
northwest  have  the  great  glacier  to  thank  for  mixing  to- 
gether clay,  sand  and  particles  of  all  kinds  of  rocks,  thus 
making  soils  wonderfully  adapted  to  the  growth  of  useful 
plants.  These  soils  of  mixed  materials  furnish  ideal 
mechanical  conditions  for  the  roots  of  plants,  contain 
the  needed  variety  of  mineral  plant  food,  conserve  the 
remains  of  plant  or  animal  life  as  organic  fertilizers, 
favor  the  elaboration  and  storage  of  plant  food  as  well  as 
the  absorption  and  conservation  of  soil  moisture,  serve 
as  hospitable  homes  to  useful  soil  bacteria,  and  are  easily 
handled  with  cultivating  implements. 

Assorted  till  formed  poor  soils. — Wherever  the  water 
assorted  the  great  body  of  materials  drifted  along  by  the 
glacier,  some  poor  soils  are  found.  Layers  of  sand  left 
at  the  surface  give  us  sandy  soils,  likewise  layers  of 
gravel  or  of  boulders  make  very  poor  soil,  and  even 
layers  of  dense  clay  without  a  mixture  of  sand  are  less 
valuable  than  soils  made  up  of  these  materials  mixed. 
Sandy  soils  in  the  regions  of  ample  rainfall  have,  in  many 
instances,  been  so  covered  with  vegetation  and  so  filled 
with  decaying  organic  substances,  that  they  retain  water 
very  well  and  nourish  large  crops.  Even  gravelly  soils, 
where  moisture  is  abundant,  are  gradually  so  changed 
that  they  raise  crops  of  native  plants  and  make  fair 
agricultural  soils.  Clay  soils  which  are  too  dense  to 
make  very  good  water  reservoirs,  or  to  allow  the  en- 
trance of  air,  are,  likewise,  sometimes  made  into  very 
productive  soils  by  the  plants  which  grow  on  them. 
These  clay  soils,  in  some  cases,  cover  large  areas.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  is  an  example.  The 
glacial   ice    melting   in    "Ancient    Lake   Agassiz "    (see 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF  THE  EARTH  4I 

Figure  7),  which  extended  from  the  south  border  of  the 
receding  glacier  above  Winnipeg,  Canada,  to  the  region 
of  Lake  Traverse  on  the  western  side  of  Minnesota, 
where  it  had  its  outlet  through  what  is  now  called  the 
Minnesota  river,  deposited  in  its  basin  a  final  surface 
layer  of  fine  clay,  covering  what  is  now  known  as  the 
valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  Clay  soils,  thus 
laid,  have  their  good  qualities  and  their  disadvantages,  as 
compared  with  the  best  types  of  mixed  soils. 

An  undulating  country. — The  drift  formed  a  generally 
undulating  surface  over  the  upper  Mississippi  valley 
region,  the  flood  waters  having  eroded  hollows,  giving 
natural  surface  drainage ;  and  the  gentler  forces  acting 
through  the  long  ages  since  the  glacial  period  have 
rounded  down  any  steeply  washed  banks,  making  the 
country  one  of  beautiful  broad  hills  and  vales.  The 
great  prairies  of  the  West  resemble  the  swells  of  a  high 
sea,  with  the  waves  and  troughs  much  enlarged. 

In  digging  into  the  drift,  as  in  making  wells,  layers  of 
clay,  sand,  gravel  and  unassorted  till  are  met  with. 
Sometimes  these  seem  to  have  been  deposited  in  an 
unnatural  order,  or  lie  in  two  or  more  series  of  layers. 
In  some  places  glacial  streams  have  eroded  large 
masses  of  the  drift,  and,  carrying  it  forward,  left  it  in 
assorted  layers.  Too  often  sandy  or  gravelly  layers 
have  been  left  at  the  surface,  and  form  poor  soils  and 
subsoils.  In  other  cases  the  unassorted  till  forming  the 
surface  contains  bowlders,  which  are  an  impediment  to 
cultivation.  There  are  areas  within  the  glacial  region 
over  which  the  glacier  did  not  flow;  some  are  covered 
with  soils  formed  from  easily  decaying  rocks,  or,  as 
north  of  Lake  Superior  and  in  mountainous  regions,  are 
of  granite,  trap  rock  or  sand  rock  uncovered  with  soil; 
others  were  formed  as  clay  layers  and  rock  ledges.  The 
forces  still  acting  on  the  soil  cause  it  to  become  more 
productive;    the  action  of  water,  of  bacteria,  of  plant 


42  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

roots  and  of  air  on  the  soil  are  all  of  great  interest  and 
lead  in  a  most  interesting  way  to  the  study  of  plants; 
likewise  of  animals  and  men  which  depend  upon  the  food 
the  plants  obtain  from  the  soil  and  air. 

Source  of  materials  moved  by  glaciers. — The  source  of 
material  moved  by  the  glacier  is  difficult  to  determine. 
Doubtless  in  the  beginning  of  things,  when  the  earth's 
crust  first  became  cool,  it  was  much  like  the  lava  which 
now  flows  from  the  craters  of  volcanoes.  This  glassy, 
hard,  rocky  substance  was  not  made  up  like  marble  or 
limestone  or  slate,  but  elements  of  all  kinds  of  rocks  were 
melted  together  in  one  mass.  This  rocky  crust  was 
broken  up  by  the  water,  air,  sun  and  winds,  literally 
rotted,  and  thus  made  into  soil;  and  later,  as  the  earth 
became  cooler,  ice  became  one  of  the  greatest  factors 
in  soil  making,  as  seen  in  the  immense  grinding  done 
by  the  glaciers  we  have  bjeen  considering.  During  the 
earlier  geologic  periods,  doubtless  even  the  interior  heat 
helped  to  break  up  the  material  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Water,  running  into  fissures  of  the  earth  and  coming  in 
contact  with  the  heated  inner  part,  formed  such  volumes 
of  steam  as  to  cause  great  explosions,  throwing  about 
and  breaking  up  great  masses  of  materials.  We  have,  in 
more  recent  times,  illustrations  of  volcanic  action;  one, 
for  instance,  when  Vesuvius  belched  forth  enough  ashes 
to  completely  bury  the  city  of  Pompeii,  and,  again,  more 
recently,  on  the  island  of  Martinique. 

Some  of  the  materials  of  the  great  area  of  glacial  drift 
have  doubtless  been  transported  many  hundreds  of  miles. 
Many  of  the  bowlders  and  other  rocks  found  in  Minne- 
sota can  be  traced  to  beds  of  similar  materials  far  to  the 
northward  in  Canada.  One  of  the  proofs  of  the  glacial 
action  is  the  fact  that  the  glacier  flowed  southward  and 
carried  down  from  the  north  many  large  fragments  of 
the  rocks  over  which  it  passed,  as  well  as  much  of  the 
finely  pulverized  materials.     Usually  these  coarser  ma- 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   EARTH  43 

terials  were  taken  from  less  than  a  hundred  miles ;  how- 
ever, geologists  believe  that  in  Europe,  as  in  America, 
some  materials  can  be  identified  as  belonging  to  ledges 
five  or  six  hundred  miles  northward.  The  southern  two- 
fifths  of  Minnesota,  or  that  part  south  of  the  line  drawn 
east  and  west  through  St.  Cloud,  Minnesota,  is  an  area 
where  the  surface  is  made  up  of  bowlder  clay,  more 
technically  called  "  till,"  into  which  is  mixed  clay,  sand; 
gravel  and  stones.  This  same  kind  of  excellent  soil- 
making  material  was  left  on  the  surface  through  Iowa 
and  as  far  as  the  glacier  proceeded  into  Missouri,  through 
eastern  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  other 
states  eastward  adjoining  the  Great  Lakes  over  whicb- 
the  great  glacier  moved.  Northeast  of  St.  Cloud,  Min- 
nesota, there  is  not  such  a  happy  m.xture,  and  the  soils 
are  assorted,  sand,  gravel  and  clay  often  appearing  in 
separate  areas. 

Soils  formed  in  place. — Only  in  the  northern  states, 
however,  do  we  find  these  mixed  soils  of  glacial  origin. 
In  most  districts,  as  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States,  the  soils  have  been  formed  in  situ  (in  place). 
In  the  Piedmont  Plateau  region  of  the  South  Atlantic 
states  the  soil  is  the  remains  of  rocks  which  have  gradu- 
ally decayed,  only  those  particles  remaining  to  form  the 
soil  which  longest  resisted  decay.  In  some  cases  a 
limestone  rock  has  decayed,  leaving  a  limestone  soil ;  in 
other  cases  a  granite  rock  has  rotted,  the  more  soluble 
particles  being  washed  out,  leaving  particles  forming  a 
granitic  soil.  In  some  places  more  than  one  layer  of 
rock  has  been  dissolved,  the  remains  of  the  upper  rock 
being  mixed  with  the  remains  of  the  lower  layer.  In 
many  cases  the  fine  particles  resulting  from  this  soil 
weathering  have  been  mixed  by  the  agency  of  water 
and  wind,  especially  in  the  lower  places,  resulting  in  a 
mixed  soil,  or  more  frequently  in  a  stratified  soil.  In 
case  of  young  soils,  as  where  rocks  have  recently  been 


44  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

ground  fine  by  glacial  action,  the  broken  particles  of 
sand  have  sharp,  harsh  edges.  Where  this  sand  has 
been  much  v^orn,  as  in  running  water,  or  in  sand  dunes 
often  shifted  by  the  winds,  the  particles  become  rounded. 
In  case  of  soils  formed  in  situ,  resulting  from  very  long 
continued  action  of  the  elements,  the  particles  are  not  so 
angular  and  firm.  Like  ripened  cheese,  they  have  lost 
their  toughness  as  well  as  their  rough  edges. 

Some  interesting  glacial  geology;  History  of  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony. — A  very  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  the  glacial  period,  illustrating  the  magnitude 
of  the  changes  wrought  by  geologic  forces,  is  recorded 
in  Minnesota.  It  includes  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Minnesota  rivers  and  their  water- 
shed in  Minnesota;  also  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of 
the  North,  or  the  bed  of  the  *' Ancient  Lake  Agassiz," 
all  of  which  tell  part  of  the  story. 

The  valley,  from  bluff  to  bluff,  of  the  Minnesota  river, 
is  considerably  larger  than  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
at  their  confluence,  as  illustrated  in  Figures  8  and  9. 
This  is  evidence  that  when  the  glacier  was  rapidly  melt- 
ing, while  its  southern  boundary  was  passing  from  north- 
ern Minnesota,  the  Minnesota  river  was  much  larger 
than  the  Mississippi,  and  that  a  much  larger  volume  of 
water  was  passing  through  these  rivers  than  later,  when 
only  the  present  watersheds  furnished  the  surplus  rain- 
fall to  be  drained  off. 

The  Ancient  Lake  Agassiz. — While  the  southern  line 
of  the  glacier  was  receding  northward  toward  the  region 
of  Hudson  Bay,  there  was  a  lake  in  the  valley  of  the 
present  Red  River  of  the  North,  as  shown  in  Figure  7. 
This  lake  has  recently  been  named  "  Ancient  Lake 
Agassiz."  The  land  slopes  to  the  north  in  that  valley, 
but  the  ice  sheet  as  it  receded  northward  served  as  a 
dam  to  the  waters,  and  this  so-called  "Ancient  Lake 
Agassiz  "  had  its  outlet  to  the  southward  where  the  Red 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF  THE  EARTH 


45 


River  of  the  North  and  the  Minnesota  river  now  have 
their  sources.  As  the  Minnesota  river  extended  west- 
ward from  where  it  and  the  Mississippi  river  came  to- 
gether, it  received,  during  that  period,  the  waters  from  a 
very  much  longer  section  of  the  southern  edge  of  the 
glacier  than  did  the  Mississippi  river.  The  watershed 
of  the  Minnesota  river  during  that  time  extended  far  out 


Figure  7.  The  dotted  surface,  including  the  system  of  great  lakes,  and  the  area 
marked  "Lake  Agassiz,"  shows  the  area  covered  by  the  great  glacier  during  the  period 
when  arctic  cold  extended  far  down  into  the  temperate  zone.  The  waters  from  the  melt- 
ing glacier  and  from  the  annual  rainfall  flowed  from  the  southern  arm  of  Lake  Agassiz 
into  the  Minnesota  river. 


into  North  Dakota,  into  the  northwest  territories  of 
Canada,  and  even  around  eastward  to  the  north  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  In  other  words,  "  Ancient  Lake 
Agassiz,"  received  water  from  streams  flowing  into  it 
from  the  east  and  from  the  west  as  well  as  from  the 
surface  of  the  receding  glaciers.  The  larger  watershed, 
supplying  a  larger  flow  of  water  in  the  Minnesota  than 
was  supplied  to  the  Mississippi  river  during  the 
glacial  period,  seems  to  account  for  the  washing  out  of 


46 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


^^'^/■■'\  SANDSTONE 


Figure  8  shows  in  cross-section  the  Minnesota  river  above 
where  it  and  the  Mississippi  come  together.  Tliis  river  is  a 
type  of  the  common  rivers  made  in  the  glacial  period.  From 
A  to  B  was  the  surface  of  the  flood  water  In  the  glacial  times 
when  the  melting  water  from  the  glacier  added  to  that  from 
the  annual  precipitation  of  rain  required  a  large  channel. 
From  C  to  D  is  the  present  surface  of  the  water,  ordina- 
rily forming  but  a  small  river.  In  the  seasons  of  high  water, 
as  at  the  time  of  spring  floods,  the  water  rises  so  as  to  cover 
the  bottoms  from  E  to  F. 


the  larger  valley  of  the  first  named  river;    but  this  is 
not  the  most  interesting  fact.     (Figures  lo  and  ii.) 

As  long  as  the  original  larger  bed  of  the  Minnesota 
river  v^as  well  filled  with  water  at  Fort  Snelling,  where 
the  two  rivers  come  together,  the  water  from  the  Missis- 
sippi did  not 
fall  over  a 
precipice,  but 
flowed  gently 
into  a  body 
of  water  nearly 
as  high  as  its 
own  river  bed, 
as  shown  in 
Figure  i  i. 
When  the  ice 
dam  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lake  Winnipeg  was  melted  low  enough  for  the 
water  from  "  Ancient  Lake  Agassiz  "  to  flow  over  it,  and 
thus  drain  the  water  of  that  lake  to  the  northward  into 
Hudson  Bay,  instead  of  to  the  southward  into  the  Gulf 

of  Mexico,  the  Minne- 
sota river  no  longer  re- 
ceived water  from  the 
watershed  of  the  valley 
of  the  Red  River  of  the 
North  and  from  the 
melting  glacier,  but 
only  that  falling  in  its 
own  valley,  extending 
from  Big  Stone  Lake 
on  the  west  border 
of  Minnesota  to  where  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  now 
stands.  This  caused  the  great  reduction  mentioned 
in  the  volume  of  the  water  in  the  Minnesota  river ;  it  no 
longer  had  as  large  a  watershed  as  the  Mississippi,  which 


^//^/.v/////^v////^v/ir^/-^^^^^^^ 


1  DRI  FT      FT?]  5ANDST0N  E 


Figure  9  shows  a  cross-section  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  above  where  the  Minnesota  enters  it, 
but  below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  This  river 
at  one  time  carried  much  more  water  than  now; 
but,  as  shown  by  the  width  between  the  bluffs,  it 
never  contained  as  much  water  as  the  Minnesota 
river  did  during  the  recession  of  the  great  gla- 
cier, as  shown  in  Figure  8. 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   EARTH 


47 


extends  from  St.  Paul  north  to  Lake  Itasca,  and  is 
broader  than  the  watershed  of  the  Minnesota ;  and  hence 
the  Minnesota  changed  from  much  the  larger  river  to 
the  smaller  one. 

The  recession  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. — The  waters 
of  the  Mississippi  now  had  to  fall  over  a  precipice,  as 
shown  at  D,  Figure  12,  to  get  down  to  the  deep  bed  of 
the  Minnesota  River,  where  it  had  previously  flowed 
directly   out   into   the   waters   which   filled   the   original 


Figure  10.    The  area  Inclosed  by  the  line  thus  —..—..—..—,.   is  the   area  formerly 
drained  by  the  Minnesota  river.     The  area  at    present   drained    by    the    same    river   is 

surrounded  by  the  solid  line,   thus  .     The  area  then,   as  now,   drained  by   the 

MlflslsBippl    river    above    where    the    two    rivers    flow   together   Is    inclosed    by    a    broken 
line,  thus  -------- 


banks  of  the  Minnesota,  as  shown  in  B,  Figure  ii. 
At  this  time  and  in  this  way  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony 
were  formed.  The  water  fell  over  a  ledge  of  limestone 
rock  which  is  underlaid  with  a  very  thick  stratum  of 
loosely  cemented  sandstone,  that  is  easily  worn  away 
by  the  falling  water.  The  waterfall  thus  gradually 
undermined  the  overlying  limestone,  which  broke  off 
in  large  masses  and  was  washed  away.  Thus  the  falls 
had  receded  northwestward  about  six  miles  to  within  a 


48 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


few  hundred  feet  of  the  present  site,  when  they  were 
first  discovered  by  the  European  explorers,  and  named 
the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  From  comparisons  of  descrip- 
tions and  drawings  made  by  the  earliest  explorers,  and 
pictures  taken  at  later  dates,  it  seems  that  these  falls 

receded    at    the 


Figure   11.     A,   surface  of  water  in  the  Minnesota  river  In      ,  j 

glacial  times   wlien   it   received  the   water  from   the  valley   of    tnOUSanQ 
the  present  Red  River  of  the  North.     B,  surface  of  the  water  . 

In  the  Mississippi  river  in  glacial  times  when  it  flowed  gently     i  his 
into   the  well-fllled  channel  of  the  Minnesota   river,     X,    the 
limestone.     Y,   the  layer  of  sandstone  below. 


rate  of  several 
feet  per  year,  or 
that  the  falls  re- 
ceded  eight 
miles  in  about 
seven  or  eight 
years, 
has  been 
thought  by  some 


to  very  roughly  mark  the  date  when  the  glacial  dam  was 
melted  low  enough  to  allow  the  waters  of  the  valley  of 
the  Red  River  of  the  North,  then  the  "Ancient  Lake 
Agassiz,"  to  flow  northward  into  the  Hudson  Bay  and 
no  longer  swell  the  banks  of  the  Minnesota  River,  which 
began  to  shrink  to  a 
small  stream  in  the  bed 
of  the  old  river. 

In  1871  it  was  found 
that  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony,  beside  which 
a  number  of  flour  and 
saw  mills  had  been 
erected,  were  in  dan- 
ger of  being  under- 
mined and  washed  out.  The  water  had  broken 
through  crevices  in  the  lime  rock,  which  was  thin, 
and  was  wearing  away  the  soft  sandstone  beneath. 
As  this  would  have  caused  the  falls  to  recede 
very  rapidly,  and  to  become  a  mere  rapids,  destroy- 
ing   the    valuable    water    power,    the    United    States 


Figure  12.  The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  when  its 
recession  had  just  begun.  A,  water  in  the  Min- 
nesota, after  it  had  ceased  to  receive  the 
glacial  water.  B,  water  in  the  Mississippi  river 
above  the  falls.  C,  water  in  the  Mississippi 
river  below  the  falls.  D,  the  Falls  of  St.  An- 
thony when  yet  at  a  point  near  the  confluence 
of  the  two  rivers. 


GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    EARTH 


49 


government  put  in  a  solid  wall  of  masonry  and  an  apron 
to  preserve  the  falls,  not  in  their  picturesque  form,  but 
so  as  to  conserve  the  water  power.   (See  E  in  Figure  13.) 


Figure  13.  The  Mississippi  river.  A,  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  B,  dam  below  the 
falls.  C,  the  Minnesota  river  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers.  D,  apron  to  prevent 
the  falls  from  further  receding.  E,  retaining  wall  above  the  falls.  K,  the  present  city 
of  Minneapolis.  M,  the  group  of  great  flouring  mills.  O,  river  below  dam.  Z.  drift 
above   the   limestone.     X,    limestone.     Y,    sandstone. 


In  1896  a  dam  was  built  in  the  rapids  a  short  distance 
below  the  falls,  for  added  power  to  be  obtained.  (See 
B,  Figure  13.)     As  the  Mississippi  river  descends  quite 

rapidly  between  the 
great  falls  and  the  con- 
fluence of  the  two 
rivers,  there  is  room 
between  the  high  bluffs 
for  other  dams  which 
are  being  erected. 

In  Figure  12  is  a 
diagram  showing  the 
recession  of  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony  very 
soon  after  the  recession 
began.  In  Figure  13 
is  a  diagram  showing 
the  falls  at  the  present 
time,  also  the  mills  for 
which  they  furnish 
power.       Minnehaha 


Figure  14.  A  diagrammatic  map  showing  how  the 
water  in  flood  times,  during  the  glacial  period,  flowed 
Hiound  the  higher  land  at  X,  X.  following  the 
flood  course  of  F,  F,  F,  and  entered  through  a 
branch  stream  into  the  river  at  K  below  the 
present  gorge  from  G  to  G.  No  doubt  there  was 
once  a  falls  that  gradually  receded  from  G  to  G, 
as  the  water  pouring  over  the  limestone  layer  of 
rock  disintegrated  the  soft  sandstone  underneath 
it  and  undermined  the  thin  limestone.  At  the 
confluence  of  the  two  flood  streams  a  great  gravel 
bed  was  formed  at  O  from  the  materials  washed 
out  through  the  floodway  at  F-F.  Another  gravel 
bed  was  formed,  possibly  at  a  later  date,  at  P. 


so 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


--^.. 

7^ 

M 

\ 

/ 

^^--4 

Falls,    made    famous   by    Longfellow's    poem,    are    in    a 
stream,   Minnehaha   creek,   which   flows   from   beautiful 

Lake  Minnetonka  and 
enters  the  Mississippi 
river  about  one-fourth 
of  the  way  from  the 
,.    r.,     V,     ,       „      ,  *K     ,  ,  1    mouth    of    the    Minne- 

Figure     15.     The    broader    valley    of    the    glacial 

river  where  it   was   cut  through  the  loose  till,    as  cnta     rivpr    to    tllf    T^pllc 

above  the  gorge   G-G  in  Figure  14.   during  glacial  ^^^'^    IIVCF    lU    tllC    J?  dllb 

times.       A-B.     surface    of    flood    water    In    glacial  ^f    C^.       Anflnnnv         Min- 

times.     E-F.   flood  water  covering  the  present  val-  ^^    *~>^'    -TVii  Liiuii_y .        xviiii 

ley.     C-D.  present  stream  bed.  nchaha      Falls      did      nOt 

begin    to    form    until    the    Falls    of    St.    Anthony    had 
receded  past  the  mouth  of  Minnehaha  creek,  when  the 
creek  waters  began  to  tumble 
into  the   deepened  bed  of  the 
Mississippi  river.      Minnehaha 
Falls,  like  the  Falls  of  St.  An- 
thony,   have    since    then    gradu-  in  Figure  16  is  shown   a   cross-sec- 
,,                       111            .1                   .  tion  of  a  river  where  the  glacial  floods 
allv      receded,      by      the      waters  cut  through  limestone  and  sandstone, 
/                .                                            11  fonning   the  gorge  at  G-G   in   Figure 
mmmSr     into     the     very     loosely  14      Here  no  broad  valley  Is  found  on 
<=>                                            ''                       •'  either   side   of   the   present   stream.     At 
rnh frpnt      «;anHstnnP      frnm      be-  ^^^^    this    seemed    very    strange,    since 
CUiieiCUL      &d.uuSLUiic      iiuiii      uc  ^Qjj^   farther   up   the   stream,    as   above 

nAo+ln     fVif»     IpHo-P'     r»f     limpctnnf  ^'   ^°<i  farther  down,   as  below  F,   the 

neatn     me     leage     01     limestone,  waterway   had    been   cut    out   broader 

^^,,r.:*,«.     :•«-     +^     Kt-^ot^     <^-ff      +V1110  by   the   glacial   water.     Upon   further 

causing     It     to     break     Otr,     tnUS  inspection    evidence    was    found    that 

1  most  of  the  flood  water  during  glacial 

wearing  away  a  gorge  nearly  a    times  had  passed  around  the  higher 

-  -  -  Ml  A     ^^  l^°d    underlaid   with    rock,    as   shown 

fourth     of    a    mile     long,     at    the     in   Figure   14.     a,    water   at   flood.     B, 
,   .    ,        .        ,  , .  water  when  no  flood  is  on. 

Upper  end  of  which  is  Min- 
nehaha Falls,  the  Indian  name  for  laughing  water.  In 
Figures  14,  15  and  16  is  shown  one  of  the  slow  but  mighty 
changes  wrought  by  water  acting  through  many  cen- 
turies. There  is  evidence  that  the  two  rivers  which  now 
flow  together  at  K  formerly  had  their  confluence  across 
the  line,  F,  F,  F,  at  least  in  flood  seasons.  The  north 
river  gradually  cut  the  soft  rock  out  of  its  east  branch, 
forming  a  gorge  at  G,  G,  and  it  no  longer  flows  across 
F,  F,  F,  even  in  flood  seasons.  A  very  small  stream  now 
follows  F,  F,  F, 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  SOIL  AND  SOIL  FORMATION 

The  soil  is  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  into  which 
the  roots  of  plants  penetrate.  We  often  speak,  in  a  nar- 
rower sense,  of  the  soil  as  that  part  of  the  earth  which 
we  handle  with  tillage  implements.  The  term  "  furrow- 
slice  "  refers  to  that  rather  definite  zone  of  soil  which  is 
inverted  by  the  moldboard,  disk  plow  or  the  gar- 
den spade  in  preparing  the  surface  of  the  land  for  cul- 
tivation. "  Subsoil "  refers  to  that  part  of  the  soil 
below  the  furrow-slice.  The  terms  "  dust  blanket  "  and 
"  dirt  mulch  "  are  often  used  to  indicate  that  upper  por- 
tion of  the  furrow-slice  which  is  kept  open  and  mellow, 
as  by  intercultural  tillage,  that  the  soil  moisture  may  not 
readily  rise  quite  to  the  surface  by  capillary  action,  but 
be  stopped  before  it  reaches  the  surface  where  it  would 
be  readily  evaporated.  The  term  "  furrow  pan "  is 
sometimes  used  to  designate  a  layer  at  the  top  of  the 
subsoil,  made  by  the  compacting  of  the  horses'  feet  and 
the  plowshare  on  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

The  soil  is  usually  made  up  of  a  framework  of 
more  or  less  finely  divided  mineral  particles,  of  partially 
decayed  inorganic  particles,  of  water,  of  air,  of  small 
quantities  of  soluble  substances,  and  of  bacteria  and 
other  low  forms  of  life.  In  some  cases,  as  peaty  soils, 
the  body  of  the  soil  solids  is  decaying  organic  matter, 
and  in  rare  cases  soils  are  mainly  water.  Most  plants 
prefer  to  live  in  soils  composed  mainly  of  stony  par- 
ticles, with  only  sufficient  water  to  partially  fill  the 
interstices,  giving  room  for  considerable  air.  Some 
plants  prefer  a  soil  so  saturated  with  water  that 
the  air  is  excluded.     Still  other  plants  like  best  to  have 

¥1 


52  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

a  saturated  peaty  soil,  and  some  species  thrive  with 
their  roots  in  standing  or  running  water.  Yet  other 
plants  have  become  accustomed  to  very  dry  soils,  in 
which  there  is  but  little  capillary  water;  and  some  even 
live  by  securing  water  mainly  from  the  air. 

Soil  formation. — The  body  of  most  soils  consists  of 
rocky  particles  resulting  from  the  action  of  changes  in 
temperature,  and  of  sunlight,  water,  winds,  ice,  plants, 
animals,  man  and  other  agencies  on  the  rocky  covering 
of  the  earth's  surface.  In  most  places  there  has  gradu- 
ally accumulated  above  the  rocky  crust  of  the  earth  a 
layer,  many  feet  in  depth,  of  more  or  less  finely  divided 
mineral  materials,  and  our  present  soils  have  been  a  long 
time  in  reaching  a  condition  suitable  for  growing  crops. 
In  other  cases  the  layer  of  pulverized  material,  coarse 
or  fine,  or  coarse  and  fine  mixed,  but  thinly  covers  the 
underlying  rocks,  or  the  solid  rock  remains  uncovered. 
Minute  plants,  as  bacteria,  lichens  and  mosses,  and 
finally  grasses  and  larger  plants,  develop  in  or  on  ex- 
posed masses  of  mixed  minerals,  and  a  soil  with  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter  is  formed  which  provides  a  home 
hospitable  to  most  of  the  flowering  plants. 

Soils  differ  as  to  the  size  of  the  particles  of  which  they 
are  composed  and  as  to  the  arrangement  or  mixture  of 
these  particles.  The  finest  soils  are  clays  made  up  of 
very  fine  particles  which  are  closely  knit  together.  Silt 
soils  are  not  so  fine  nor  are  the  particles  of  a  nature 
to  adhere  so  closely  to  each  other.  Fine  sandy  soils, 
medium  sandy  soils,  coarse  sandy  soils  and  gravelly 
soils,  are  grades  in  which  the  particles  become  coarser 
and  coarser,  with  less  and  less  power  to  adhere 
closely  to  each  other.  Clay,  silt,  sand,  gravel  and  stones 
may  be  mixed  together  in  all  kinds  of  proportions.  Any 
mixture  of  clay  or  silt  and  sand  which  combines  the 
adhesiveness  of  clay  or  silt  with  some  of  the  open 
crumbly  character  of  sand  makes  a  good  medium  soil, 


THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL   FORMATION  53 

which  allows  water  to  enter,  holds  to  the  water  as 
against  either  seepage  or  evaporation,  conserves  fer- 
tility, and  yet  allows  the  roots  of  crops  to  penetrate 
easily  and  supplies  them  with  that  combination  of  water, 
air  and  plant  food  which  makes  them  thrive.  Any  rea- 
sonable proportion  of  the  coarser  and  finer  particles,  as 
one-fourth  clay  and  three-fourths  sand,  or  three-fourths 
clay  and  one-fourth  sand,  provides  good  physical  condi- 
tions for  crops.  Soils  arising  from  many  kinds  of  rocks, 
the  particles  mixed  by  various  agencies  in  varying  pro- 
portions and  reasserted  into  layers,  are  of  many  types. 
The  various  sizes  of  particles,  the  substances  of  which 
the  particles  from  different  rocks  are  composed,  the 
proportion  of  organic  matter  and  other  characters,  en- 
able soils  to  be  classified  in  rather  definite  groups. 

Whitney  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  under  whom  soil  surveys 
of  many  counties  have  been  made,  has  classified  the 
soils  of  the  country  under  several  hundred  types,  and 
expects  to  add  still  more  types.  This  is  an  artificial 
classification  made  for  convenience  in  mapping  soils  and 
in  studying  farm  management,  and  is  necessarily  less 
definite  than  the  classifications  that  botanists  and 
zoologists  have  made  of  plants  and  animals.  Living 
organisms  have  had  the  living  force  of  heredity  plus  the 
inorganic  forces  to  develop  natural  grouping,  while  soils 
have  been  grouped  by  the  common  physical  forces 
alone. 

Areas  of  types  of  soils. — The  elevation  and  depression 
of  the  earth's  crust,  causing  the  shifting  of  seas  and 
changes  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  streams ;  the  flow- 
ing of  surface  waters;  the  action  of  winds,  glaciers  and 
other  agencies,  have  in  one  place  made  mixed  soils  and 
in  another  soils  of  only  one  kind  or  size  of  materials. 
Some  soils  are  thus  very  simple  and  others  very 
complex. 


54  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

These  soil  areas,  whether  formed  in  situ  of  the  least 
easily  decayed  rock  substance ;  in  homogeneous  layers,  as 
of  clay  or  sand  assorted  and  deposited  by  some  agency; 
or  composed  of  mixed  materials,  as  a  bowlder  clay  or  a 
sandy  clay,  are  in  areas  irregular  in  outline,  and  usually 
much  overlapped  and  mixed.  A  general  soil  survey  of 
any  locality,  outlining  the  extent  of  its  soil  types  and 
mapping  each  area  under  an  appropriate  name,  gives  a 
basis  for  studying  the  need  of  each  soil  area  and  for 
developing  good  cultural  systems  suited  to  it.  Follow- 
ing the  soil  survey  naturally  come  the  fertilizer  and  crop 
rotation  surveys,  and  the  general  farm  management  sur- 
vey for  determining,  by  systematic  field  plot  tests  on 
each  soil  type,  the  fertilizers  needed,  also  the  kinds  of 
rotation  and  systems  of  farm  management  which  best 
maintain  high  productivity  and  are  permanently  the  most 
profitable. 

All  the  activities  breaking  up  the  surface  of  the 
earth's  crust,  mixing  and  piling  some  materials  here, 
assorting  and  spreading  others  there,  leaving  the  under- 
lying rocks  deeply  buried  in  one  place  and  uncovered 
in  another,  have  given  to  one  section  good  materials 
for  soils  and  left  another  a  barren  waste  of  rock  or  a 
desert  of  sand.  The  surface  of  mixed  material  forming 
loose  earth,  mainly  sand  and  clay,  is  rapidly  changed 
into  a  productive  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  changing 
of  inhospitable  lava  beds,  the  transformation  of  the  dense 
clay  recently  risen  from  the  lake,  the  binding  and  bet- 
tering of  the  drifting  sand  surface,  or  the  filling  up  of  a 
gravel  bed  and  making  it  into  a  hospitable  soil,  have  all 
taken  ages  of  time,  even  under  the  many  forces  at  work. 

Agencies  in  soil  formation. — The  physical  agencies — 
air,  sun,  wind,  water  and  ice,  heat  and  cold — are  in 
some  cases  sufficient  to  crumble  the  lava.  Spores  of 
minute  lichens  fall  upon  hard  rock,  germinate  and  form 
3mall  plants.     These  live  mostly  upon  moisture  and  air, 


THE   SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION  55 

obtaining  some  food  from  the  dust  and  soil  particles 
continually  being  brought  forward  from  adjacent  soil 
areas.  Where  the  small  plant  comes  in  contact  with 
granite  or  other  rock,  it  secures  minute  quantities  of 
mineral  food.  One  lichen  plant  living  and  decaying 
makes  it  possible  for  others  to  grow.  These,  decaying 
on  some  rock  surface  and  lodging  in  some  crevice,  result 
in  an  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  and  make  a  soil 
habitable  for  more  highly  organized  bodies,  as  mosses. 
The  mosses,  in  their  turn,  gathering  into  their  branches 
more  or  less  particles  of  crumbled  rock  and  other  ma- 
terial driven  by  the  wind  or  carried  by  the  water,  decay, 
adding  humus  to  the  soil,  and  finally  make  a  place 
suitable  for  the  germination  of  seeds  and  a  feeding 
ground  for  roots  of  some  of  the  more  highly  organized 
plants.  Thus  it  is  possible  for  the  most  inhospitable 
surfaces  to  be  made  more  or  less  productive.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  bacteria  came  before  lichens  and  acted  as 
soil-forming  agents  before  the  latter  plants  were 
evolved. 

Soil  formation  under  difficulties. — In  gravel  beds  the 
processes  of  disintegration  and  soil  building  have  been 
similar  to  those  of  solid  rock  surfaces.  Small  plants 
that  can  exist  in  unfavorable  conditions  must  grow  first. 
Their  decaying  bodies  make  it  easier  for  the  next  genera- 
tion, or  for  higher  plants,  and  the  soil  is  gradually  en- 
riched. If  moisture  is  abundant  in  gravel  beds,  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  is  gradually  filled  with  lichens,  mosses, 
and  other  simple  plant  organisms;  and  finally,  flower- 
ing plants  find  in  the  gravel  hospitable  nooks  for  a  few 
roots,  where  decaying  plant  materials  hold  moisture  and 
plant  food  for  their  use.  Even  where  the  gravel  is  so 
large  as  to  be  called  stones  or  bowlders,  the  mosses  and 
other  plants  have  found  an  abode,  and  the  result  has 
been  that  some  of  these  soils  have  been  so  filled  up  with 
decaying  mosses  and   other  plants  that  they  are   now 


56  FARM  DEVELOPMENT 

covered  with  groves  of  large  trees.  In  the  dry  season 
of  1894,  the  forest  fires  in  places  burned  away  forests  in 
the  Great  Lakes  region,  and  even  burned  the  mosses 
and  other  vegetable  materials,  so  that  in  some  bowlder 
soils  one  could  see  a  foot  or  more  down  among  the 
bowlders.  Thus  was  destroyed  in  a  day  a  forest-bear- 
ing soil  which  nature  had  required  many  centuries  to 
build. 

In  some  places  vast  tracts  of  land  are  covered  with 
sand,  and  furnish  most  difficult  conditions  for  vegeta- 
tion to  start.  In  case  these  sandy  soils  lie  many 
feet  above  the  supply  of  underground  water  and  are  so 
dry  that  plants  cannot  get  their  roots  down  to  the 
moisture,  nature  covers  them  with  vegetation  only  with 
great  difficulty.  The  minute  lichens,  or  even  large  plants, 
have  trouble  here  in  securing  a  foothold,  for  the  sand  is 
shifted  about  by  the  wind,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  shift- 
ing is  so  regular  that  plants  can  never  be  produced  by 
nature  in  quantity  to  bind  the  sand  into  a  soil  and  thus 
cover  it  with  a  blanket  of  vegetation  for  protection. 
Where  the  moisture  is  near  the  surface  of  the  sand,  as 
where  water  seeps  out  through  a  hillside,  or  where  clay 
lies  near  the  surface,  or  where  the  sand  is  near  water 
which  passes  back  under  it,  plants  can  get  their  roots 
into  this  water  and  more  quickly  fill  the  soil  with  de- 
caying plant  roots  and  other  materials  to  protect  them 
from  the  winds.  Thus  some  sandy  lands  lying  high  and 
dry,  shift  before  the  wind  and  are  never  covered  with 
vegetation,  while  others  that  seem  equally  sandy  at  the 
surface,  but  contain  water  within  reach,  are  covered  with 
a  luxuriant  growth. 

Soil  formation  on  moorlands. — Where  water  lies  on 
flat  areas  and  keeps  roots  and  stems  of  mosses  and 
other  plants  from  decaying,  there  is  formed  a  layer 
of  partially  decayed  vegetable  matter,  called  peat, 
or  peaty  soils.     The  strangest  place,  however,  for  soil 


THE  SOIL  AND   SOIL  FORMATION  57 

formation  is  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  on  ponds  and 
lakes,  where  peat  is  formed  by  the  growth  of  moss  and 
higher  plants  resting  on  the  water.  Many  places  are 
to  be  found  where  peat  a  few  inches  to  many  feet  in 
thickness  covers,  or  partially  covers,  areas  of  very 
moist  land,  and  even  of  lakes.  In  some  cases,  even 
where  the  peaty  substances  are  thick,  sand  and  clay  have 
been  washed  in  from  adjacent  hillsides,  and  have  been 
arranged  in  layers  with  the  peat,  or  have  been  in- 
timately mixed  with  it,  and  thus  a  soil  of  mixed  vegetable 
and  mineral  matter  is  formed. 

Soil  formation  under  favorable  conditions. — Soil 
formation  on  clay  takes  place  more  rapidly  than  on  the 
kinds  of  land  above  mentioned.  Here  the  consistency 
or  texture  of  the  land  allows  the  entrance  of  both  air 
and  water  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  provides  favor- 
able conditions  for  the  germination  of  seeds  of  the 
higher  forms  of  plant  life.  Here,  too,  lichens  and  mosses 
were  doubtless  useful.  In  this  soil  their  pioneer  work 
in  preparing  it  for  the  higher  flowering  plants  naturally 
would  be  more  rapid,  or  possibly  in  many  cases  un- 
necessary. The  higher  plants  in  turn  would  send 
their  roots  into  the  soil,  opening  up  the  clay  and  letting 
in  more  air  and  water,  thus  helping  to  draw  off  the 
excess  of  moisture,  producing  that  mixture  of  air,  water 
and  soil  particles  best  adapted  to  the  plants  which  we 
grow  in  arable  lands. 

The  glacial  mixtures  of  sand  and  clay,  the  alluvial  soils 
formed  by  running  water,  also  the  soils  of  mixed  sand 
and  clay  formed  in  situ  from  decaying  rocks,  were 
even  more  easily  formed  into  rich  soils.  Here  the 
lichens  and  mosses  and  the  other  small  plants  following 
them  could  easily  get  hold  and  find  at  once  conditions 
of  moisture,  aeration  and  mineral  plant  food  suited  to 
their  growth.  The  larger  plants  here  find  many  con- 
ditions favorable  to  their  growth,  and  the  elaboration  of 


58  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

plant  food  and  its  supply  is  provided  in  the  manner  best 
suited  to  the  plants.  It  wsls  on  this  kind  of  soil  that 
the  greatest  variety  of  natural  crops  first  learned  to  grow. 
Here  plants  flourished  and  sent  many  roots  into  the 
soil.  The  decaying  of  both  tops  and  roots  furnished 
humus  v^hich,  mixed  v^ith  the  rock  substances,  rapidly 
formed  a  great  abundance  of  fertile  soil.  This  made  a 
congenial  soil  for  many  of  the  clovers  and  other  wild 
leguminosae:  the  class  of  plants  which  have  the  power 
to  extract  from  the  'air  quantities  of  nitrogen,  which, 
stored  in  the  roots,  stems  and  leaves,  further  enriches 
the  soil. 

Sustaining  soil  fertility. — The  soils  that  are  built  up 
of  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  gravel  and  stones  usually 
afford  superior  conditions  for  the  permanent  growth  of 
large  crops.  It  is  on  these  soils  that  it  is  possible 
from  generation  to  generation  to  increase  rather  than 
to  decrease  the  productivity  of  the  land  by  scientific 
field  management.  It  is  our  duty,  not  only  to  keep  lands 
up  to  their  virgin  fertility,  but  to  increase  their  crop- 
producing  powers,  SO'  that  future  generations  may  have 
a  richer  heritage  than  we  had.  To  da  this,  we  can  raise 
large  crops  and  either  leave  a  part  of  them  on  the  fields, 
or,  having  taken  them  to  the  barn  as  feed  for  our 
animals,  return  the  greater  part  of  their  substance  in  the 
form  of  manure,  to  the  soil,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  supply  of 
vegetable  matter.  We  can  also  use  more  artificial  means 
of  keeping  up  the  productivity  of  the  soil,  as  by  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  By  allowing  animals  to  take 
toll  from  the  annual  crop  produced,  and  yet  return  the 
larger  percentage  of  the  organic  matter,  we  can  gradu- 
ally increase  the  crop-producing  power  of  most  soils, 
but  often  we  may  use  commercial  fertilizers  also  to 
greatly  increase  the  yields. 

The  soil  a  complex  bank, — In  a  new  bank,  the  money 
deposited  in  excess  of  that  withdrawn,  is  a  simple  form  of 


THE  SOIL  AND  SOIL  FORMATION  59 

capital.  As  this  excess  is  loaned  and  the  interest  earn- 
ings minus  the  cost  of  running  the  bank  is  added,  the 
form  of  the  capital  becomes  more  complex.  When  some 
of  the  loans  result  unfavorably,  the  books  are  com- 
plicated by  records  of  uncollected  interest,  mortgage 
foreclosures,  property  rentals  on  real  estate,  charges  to 
the  loss  account,  uncollected  rental  charges,  etc.  Rumors 
of  the  insolvency  of  the  leading  owners  of  the  bank,  of 
unreliability  of  the  bank  officers,  and  even  defalcation, 
may  prejudice  the  minds  of  the  public  against  the  bank, 
causing  a  falling  off  of  the  business,  or  even  may  result 
in  a  run  on  the  bank.  The  business  thus  becomes  very 
complex,  and  some  very  minor  matter,  as  a  true  or 
untrue  rumor  as  to  the  solvency  of  the  banks  in  the 
town,  or  of  the  bank  in  question,  may  cause  the  bank 
to  decline. 

A  soil  is  a  far  more  complex  store  of  wealth  than  a 
bank.  Its  original  capital  is  more  indestructible,  but 
its  ability  to  pay  dividends  rests  on  even  more  con- 
tingencies than  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  bank.  Even 
where  plants  can  draw  upon  the  soil  for  all  the  mineral 
matter  they  need  without  seriously  reducing  the  amount 
yearly  made  available,  other  conditions  may  determine 
the  yields  of  crops.  Recent  investigations  indicate  that 
some  soils  are  made  infertile  by  very  minute  quantities 
of  substances  poisonous  to  the  plants.  At  first  this 
seems  very  strange,  but  a  simple  example  from  practices 
in  fish  culture  will  illustrate  how  minute  quantities  of 
poisons  in  solutions  will  act  on  living  things.  In  a  cer- 
tain fish  hatchery  the  water,  as  it  runs  from  a  spring 
into  the  troughs  where  the  little  fish  are  kept,  becomes 
filled  with  a  minute  green  plant  called  an  alga.  A 
barrel  of  water  containing  sulphate  of  copper  is  placed 
beside  the  spring,  and  from  it  a  sufficient  amount  of  this 
copper  solution  is  allowed  to  drip  to  give  it  a  strength 
of  one  part  in  5,000,000,  or  one  fifty-thousandth  part  of 


60  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

one  per  cent.  This  strength  of  solution  has  been  found 
strong  enough  to  kill  the  alga  without  injury  to  the  fish, 
while  a  solution  a  few  times  as  strong  would  cause  the 
fish  to  thrive  so  poorly  as  to  cause  loss  rather  than  gain 
from  their  culture. 

Those  who  have  given  this  matter  most  study  believe 
that,  in  respect  to  many  plants,  minute  amounts  of  sub- 
stances poisonous  to  them  or  to  certain  other  plants,  are 
either  given  off  by  their  roots,  yielded  by  their  decaying 
products  or  supplied  by  bacteria  associated  with  their 
roots;  while,  as  in  the  case  of  the  fish,  there  are  still 
other  plants  which  they  do  not  affect.  As  the  reputation 
for  honesty  or  dishonesty  of  the  manager  of  a  savings 
bank  may  cause  the  institution  to  prosper  or  decline,  so 
it  is  believed  those  minute  substances  often  cause  profit 
or  loss  from  the  fields.  This  theory  has  not  as  yet  been 
placed  wholly  in  harmony  with  the  generally  accepted 
theory  as  to  the  function  of  manures  and  commercial  fer- 
tilizers as  so  much  available  plant  food  added  to  the  soil. 
Presumably  when  more  is  known  of  the  soil  and  how 
plants  feed,  both  the  old  and  the  new  theories  will  be 
brought  into  harmony.  The  fact  that  wheat  does  well 
after  corn,  but  often  does  not  yield  so  well  after  wheat 
or  oats,  and  that  crop  rotation  often  increases  the 
production  of  all  the  crops  in  the  rotation  over  a  long 
series  of  years,  cannot  be  so  fully  explained  as  by  ac- 
cepting the  theory  of  toxic  soil  substances,  along  with 
the  theory  of  the  stimulation  of  the  crops  by  feeding 
them  with  yard  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers. 

With  the  peaty  soils  there  is  an  over-abundance  of 
vegetable  matter.  The  question  with  these  soils  often 
is,  how  to  enrich  them  in  mineral  substances.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  peaty  soil  from  being  burned  too 
deeply,  since  once  the  surplus  water  is  drained  out  of 
peaty  lands,  they  become  dry  and  will  burn  if  set  on 


THE  SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION  *  6l 

fire,  SO  that  great  holes  or  pits  are  often  left,  making  the 
surface  very  uneven.  This  is  of  especial  importance  in 
regions  where  drouths  occur  of  sufficient  duration  to 
allow  the  peat  to  dry  out  to  considerable  depth. 

Soil  body  and  soil  fertility. — The  solid  body,  or  frame- 
work, of  the  soil  usually  makes  up  90  per  cent,  or  more, 
of  the  weight,  and  is  composed  of  the  solid  particles  of 
clay,  sand  and  stone  from  which  the  soil  was  made. 
Spillman  says : 

"  In  order  to  understand  the  methods  necessary  for 
restoring  worn-out  soils,  let  us  consider  what  occurs  in 
a  fertile  soil  that  is  growing  a  large  crop.  Imagine  a 
cubic  inch  of  ordinary  field  soil  magnified  into  a  cubic 
mile.  It  would  then  present  very  much  the  appear- 
ance of  a  mass  of  rocks  varying  from  the  size  of  a  pea 
to  masses  several  feet  in  diameter.  Scattered  among 
these  rock  masses  would  be  many  pieces  of  decaying 
plant  roots  and  other  organic  matter,  resembling  rotting 
logs  in  a  mass  of  stones  and  gravel.  The  masses  of 
organic  matter  would  be  found  to  contain  large  quan- 
tities of  water,  and  to  somewhat  resemble  wet  sponges, 
while  every  mass  of  rock  would  have  a  layer  of  water 
covering  its  surface.  The  open  spaces  between  the  solid 
masses  would  be  filled  with  air. 

"  If  a  crop  were  growing  on  this  soil,  its  roots  would 
be  found  threading  their  way  among  the  masses  of  rock 
and  decaying  roots,  and  pushing  these  aside  by  the  pres- 
sure exerted  by  the  growing  root.  From  the  surface  of 
the  growing  root,  near  its  tip,  root  hairs  extend  into  the 
open  spaces  and  suck  up  the  water  covering  the  rock  par- 
ticles. The  plant  food  is  dissolved  in  this  water,  but  is 
usually  present  in  exceedingly  small  quantities.  While 
the  plant  is  growing,  a  constant  stream  of  water  flows  up 
through  it  and  evaporates  at  its  leaves.  For  every  pound 
of  growth  in  dry  matter  made  by  the  plant,  from  300  to 
800  pounds  of  water  flow  up  through  it." 


62  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Substances  used  by  plants. — Plants  take  from  the  soil 
and  require  for  their  growth  and  development  the  follow- 
ing elements :  Potassium,  phosphorus,  nitrogen,  iron, 
calcium,  magnesium,  sulphur  and  chlorine.  These 
elements,  together  with  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
which  may  be  considered  as  derived  in  some  form  from 
the  air,  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
all  higher  plants.  In  the  absence  of  any  one  of  these 
elements  none  of  the  higher  plants  can  reach  maturity. 
Other  elements,  such  as  silicon,  sodium  and  aluminum, 
are  also  invariably  present  in  plants,  but  they  are  not 
necessary-,  as  shown  by  accurate  experiments.  Besides 
these,  such  elements  as  titanium,  copper,  manganese  and 
others  have  also  been  found,  but  their  presence  seems  to 
be  accidental ;  that  is,  they  have  been  taken  up  because 
they  happened  to  be  present  in  the  soil  where  the  plants 
grew,  thus  making  it  impossible  for  the  plants  to  reject 
them  when  they  occur  in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  It 
must  be  understood,  of  course,  that  plants  do  not 
take  up  these  elements  as  such,  but  find  them  in  the  soil 
in  combination  with  other  substances.  For  example, 
calcium  is  not  taken  up  in  its  elementary  form,  but 
occurs  in  the  soil,  combined  with  nitrogen  and  oxygen, 
as  calcium  nitrate,  and  as  such  may  be  taken  up.  It 
also  occurs  in  many  other  compounds. 

The  food  material  which  the  plant  takes  from  the  soil 
forms  only  a  small  per  cent  of  its  weight,  as  shown  by 
the  percentage  of  ash  found  on  burning.  The  amount 
varies,  according  to  the  plant,  between,  approximately, 
I  per  cent  and  lo  per  cent.  The  bulk  of  the  plant  is 
made  up  of  the  elements  derived  from  the  air  and  water 
— carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  cell  walls, 
starches,  sugars,  organic  acids,  etc.,  are  composed  almost 
exclusively  of  these  three  elements;  while  certain  other 
compounds  like  proteids,  as  the  gluten  of  wheat,  contain 
in  addition  to  these,  nitrogen  and  small  amounts  of  sul- 


THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  FORMATION  63 

phur  and  phosphorus.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  taken 
up  through  the  roots  of  plants  in  the  form  of  water, 
while  carbon  is  taken  from  the  air  through  the  leaves 
in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  atmosphere  con- 
tains only  about  four-hundredths  of  i  per  cent  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a  great  abun- 
dance in  the  air  for  crop-producing  purposes. 

Mechanical  classification  of  soils. — Clay  may  be  sep- 
arated from  the  sand  by  stirring  the  soil  with  water, 
allowing  the  sand  to  settle,  then  taking  it  out,  and 
evaporating  the  water  from  the  clay  which  is  left  in  sus- 
pension. The  silt,  sand  and  other  coarser  particles  may 
be  separated  by  apparatus  devised  for  that  purpose. 

The  following  table  shows  how  Professor  F.  H.  King, 
in  his  book,  "  The  Soil,"  classifies  soils  as  to  their  me- 
chanical make-up,  showing  the  general  proportions  of 
sand,  clay  and  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  several 
classes  of  soil: 

Sand  Clay  Humus 

per  cent  per  cent  per  cent 

1.  Sandy  soil,  containing. ..     80  to  90  8  to  10  1  to  3 

2.  Sandy  loam,  containing.  :     60  to  80  10  to  25  3  to  6 

3.  Loam,  containing 25  to  60  60  to  25  3  to  8 

4.  Clayey  loam,  containing.      10  to  25  60  to  80  3  to  8 

5.  Clay  soil,  containing 8  to  15  70  to  80  3  to  6 

The  so-called  heavy  soils  are  those  made  up  too  largely 
of  clay,  and  are  described  as  "  heavy,"  because  they  are 
difficult  to  handle  with  the  plow,  cultivator  or  hoe.  But 
the  air  space  being  greater,  these  soils,  bulk  for  bulk,  are 
lighter  than  the  soils  of  coarser  texture.  They  are  soft 
when  wet,  tough  when  partially  dry,  and  when  dried 
they  become  very  hard.  Soils  composed  principally  of 
fine  clay  will  clog  on  the  plow,  the  particles  adhering 
very  closely  to  the  smoothest  steel  implement.  Some  of 
the  densest  clays  are  called  gumbo  soils.  They  are  not 
only  handled  with  difficulty,  but  they  are  too  dense  to 
allow  an  excess  of  water  to  drain  out ;  they  do  not  admit 
sufficient  air ;   plant  roots  cannot  readily  penetrate  them. 


64  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

and  soil  bacteria  do  not  find  in  them  favorable  condi- 
tions for  development.  They  stand  more  abuse  under 
a  poor  system  of  farming  than  do  soils  of  more  open 
texture. 

Light,  sandy,  gravelly  or  chalky  soils  are  extreme  in 
the  opposite  direction ;  being  too  porous,  they  dry  out 
very  readily.  Most  of  these  soils  are  not  permanently 
productive  unless  treated  very  wisely.  The  air  cir- 
culates in  them  readily,  they  are  v^^arm,  their  small 
amounts  of  organic  substances  rapidly  decay  and  the 
waters  of  rains  percolating  down  through  them  carry 
out  a  large  proportion  of  the  resulting  soluble 
substances.  They  are  sometimes  called  "  hungry " 
soils.  Barnyard  or  other  vegetable  manures  decompose 
rapidly  in  these  open  soils  and  thus  become  quickly 
available  for  plants  to  use.  These  soils  are  also  called 
warm,  or  quick,  soils.  They  are  ready  for  crops  early 
in  the  spring,  and,  because  the  plant  food  is  in  an  avail- 
able condition,  crops  start  quickly  and  usually  grow 
rapidly  in  the  first  part  of  the  season.  They  are  also 
called  drouthy  soils,  as  they  allow  the  larger  portion  of 
rain  falling  on  them  at  once  to  percolate  downward, 
retaining  by  their  capillary  forces  only  a  small  part. 
Their  pores  being  so  large,  they  do  not  readily  bring  up 
water  from  below  by  capillary  action.  On  account  of 
this  porosity  the  air  circulates  in  them  freely  in  a  dry 
time.  Their  total  content  of  water  is  relatively  small, 
and  plants  exhaust  it  rapidly.  They  dry  out  so  rapidly 
that  they  often  do  not  contain  enough  water  for  the  roots 
of  plants.  In  countries  of  ample  rainfall,  or  where  it  is 
practicable  to  irrigate,  and  where  barnyard  manure  or 
other  complete  fertilizers  are  easily  procured,  light  soils 
often  have  an  especially  high  value  for  raising  vegetables, 
particularly  early  ones.  But,  as  a  rule,  light  lands  are 
not  very  profitable  for  general  farming,  and  the  lighter 
they  are  the  less  profitable,  especially  in  districts  subject 


THE  SOIL  AND   SOIL  FORMATION  65 

to  periods  of  drouth.  Many  light  soils  are  far  better 
adapted  to  forest  crops  than  to  field  crops. 

Medium  soils  are  made  up  of  sand  and  clay,  coarser 
and  finer  rock  particles,  mixed.  They  are  sufficiently 
open  to  absorb  large  quantities  of  water,  and  they  have 
the  ability  to  retain  it.  They  are  usually  productive 
soils,  having  large  quantities  of  organic  matter  rather 
firmly  "  fixed,"  among  the  mineral  soil  particles.  These 
soils  provide  the  best  home  for  the  roots  of  plants,  being 
neither  too  dense  for  the  easy  penetration  of  the  roots, 
too  close  for  the  circulation  of  air,  water  and  heat,  nor 
too  drouthy;  and  they  provide  a  healthy  place  for  those 
bacteria  which  are  friends  of  the  crop.  These  medium 
soils  sometimes  are  given  names  indicating  their  geolog- 
ical origin,  as  till  soils,  bowlder  clay  soils,  loose  soils  and 
alluvial  soils. 

On  the  prairies  these  soils  are  nearly  black,  and  bear  a 
rich  covering  of  native  grasses.  In  the  timber  sections 
they  carry  a  heavy  growth  of  trees,  usually  of  the 
deciduous  class.  Color  is  not  a  very  good  general  index 
to  the  richness  of  a  soil ;  some  rich  soils  are  black,  others 
red,  yellow  or  other  lighter  shades. 

These  mixed  soils  are  the  golden  mean :  they  form  the 
kind  of  land  upon  which  every  farmer  should  be  am- 
bitious to  establish  himself  and  his  family.  Such  soils 
often  sell  below  their  real  value.  They  are  the  lands 
on  which  usually  may  be  raised  the  best  crops.  These 
soils  are  most  suitable  for  mixed  and  intensive  systems 
of  farming.  They  are  adapted  to  grains,  grasses,  cul- 
tivated crops,  roots,  garden  vegetables,  small  fruits  and 
forest  trees ;  in  fact,  to  almost  all  staple  crops  for  which 
the  latitude  is  favorable. 

Peaty  soils,  formed  in  wet  places  by  the  accumulation 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  water,  where  it  decomposes 
only  very  slowly,  differ  from  the  three  classes  of  soils 
named  above   in  that   they   contain   little   mineral   but 


66  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

much  vegetable  matter.  When  peat  is  well  rotted,  it  is 
sometimes  called  muck,  a  soil  term  also  applied  to  rich 
mud  in  the  bottoms  of  streams  or  standing  water. 

In  other  cases,  peat  is  built  up  on  flat,  level  lands, 
where  the  constant  supply  of  waters  flowing  down  a 
long,  nearly  flat  incline,  or  out  of  a  seepy  hillside, 
furnishes  moisture  to  preserve  the  dead  vegetable  mat- 
ter from  decaying  and  supplies  the  needed  conditions 
for  the  growth  of  peat-forming  plants.  These  stretches 
of  peaty  lands,  sometimes  many  miles  across,  are  often 
covered  with  trees,  such  as  tamarack  and  spruce ;  in 
other  cases  they  bear  only  small  shrubs,  in  some  local- 
ities called  heath,  and  in  other  places  wild  grasses  and 
sedges  grow.  Dead  trees,  falling  down,  often  become  a 
part  of  the  mass  of  peat  in  these  low  places,  and  mosses, 
such  as  sphagnum,  form  a  large  part  of  the  peaty  sub- 
stance. Peat  bogs,  natural  meadows,  and  muskegs  are 
common  names  for  wet  areas  of  this  class  of  soils,  which, 
by  open  drains  and  subdrains,  may  be  converted  into 
arable  soils  suited  to  at  least  some  of  the  crops  grown 
on  upland  soils.  Peaty  soils  are  usually  not  nearly  as 
valuable  as  good  soils  of  mixed  mineral  particles.  Some 
are  especially  suited  to  certain  vegetables,  as  celery;  in 
cold,  temperate  regions  they  grow  better  grasses,  as  red 
top  and  timothy  for  hay,  than  cereal  or  leguminous  crops. 

Alkaline  soils  occur  where  there  is  much  evaporation 
from  the  soil,  and  very  little  rainfall  and  poor  drainage. 
The  alkaline  character  comes  from  compounds  of  soda 
and  other  alkaline  compounds  brought  to  the  surface  by 
the  water,  which  rises  by  capillarity  and  evaporates, 
leaving  the  alkali  either  as  a  white  or  colored  crust  or  in 
the  soil  near  the  surface.  The  plant  roots  find  the  water 
in  the  soil  so  strongly  impregnated  with  certain  of  these 
alkaline  salts  that  they  do  not  make  a  healthy  growth. 
Some  soils  contain  such  an  excess  of  alkaline  salts  that 
they  are  nearly  or  quite  worthless. 


THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  FORMATION  dj 

To  show  how  these  alkaline  substances  are  deposited, 
one  may  take  a  glass  tumbler,  fill  it  half  full  of  salt  and 
then  fill  with  water.  If  the  tumbler  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  a  warm  room  for  some  weeks  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  water  creeps  up  the  sides  of  the  tumbler  and  even 
over  the  edge  and  down  the  outside,  and  deposits  a  layer 
of  salt  on  the  wall  of  the  glass.  The  water  rises  over 
the  tumbler,  by  capillarity  through  this  crust,  and  where 
it  evaporates  it  leaves  salt.  In  the  same  way  many 
soluble  salts  in  the  soil  are  left  at  or  near  the  surface, 
where  the  rising  water  evaporates.  Thus  in  regions  of 
light  rainfall  and  very  dry  air,  seepage  water  containing 
alkali,  coming  constantly  to  the  surface  in  a  low  area,  as 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  and  there  evaporating,  often  causes 
such  an  accumulation  of  alkali  near  the  surface  that 
most  plants  will  not  thrive.  Some  plants  are  accus- 
tomed to  growing  in  soils  containing  considerable 
alkali. 

Relation  of  air  to  soil  and  plants.  Room  for  air  in 
soils. — While  most  arable  soils  contain  some  relatively 
large  particles,  the  bulk  of  these  soils  is  composed  mainly 
of  very  finely  divided  particles,  %5ooo  part  of  an  inch 
and  less  in  diameter.  Soil  materials  divided  into  these 
very  small  particles  have  an  immense  total  surface  area. 
Many  of  the  tiny  surfaces  are  applied  so  closely  together 
that  they  exclude  air,  and  even  water,  from  coming  in 
contact  with  them.  There  are,  however,  in  ordinary 
soils  numerous  interstices  among  the  larger  particles, 
which  give  room  for  both  air  and  water.  Soils  con- 
taining humus  will  absorb  and  tenaciously  retain  more 
water  than  the  same  soils  without  humus.  Soils  hold 
in  their  pore  spaces  and  on  the  surfaces  of  their  par- 
ticles, by  the  force  called  capillarity,  considerable  water. 
When  this  capillary  force  is  only  partly  satisfied,  these 
interstices  serve  as  channels  through  which  water  can 
be  moved  from  one  part  of  the  soil  to  another  part  from 


68  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

which  evaporation  or  the  action  of  roots  has  depleted 

the  supply  of  water.  The  interstices  are  not  filled  with 
water,  unless  the  soil  is  flooded  or  not  properly  drained. 
Soils  rarely  have  even  all  their  interspaces  of  a  capillary 
size  filled  with  water ;  in  other  words,  the  capillary  power 
of  soils  is  usually  only  partly  satisfied.  The  larger  in- 
terspaces are  filled  with  air.  Should  the  land  be  flooded 
with  water,  however,  all  these  openings  are  filled,  and 
the  air,  being  lighter  than  water,  is  driven  out. 

The  soil  needs  air  to  supply  oxygen  to  the  growing 
roots  and  to  the  germinating  seeds;  to  assist  in 
fermenting  manures,  dead  roots  and  other  fertiliz- 
ing materials;  to  furnish  oxygen  for  bacteria  and 
other  low  organisms,  part  of  which  assist  in  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  higher  plants.  Air  needs  to  cir- 
culate in  the  soil  to  remove  carbon  dioxide  and  probably 
other  deleterious  gases,  and  to  oxidize  substances  which 
may  be  unwholesome  to  plants.  Roots  of  plants  and 
germinating  seeds  will  suffocate  if  not  supplied  with 
oxygen. 

Earth  worms,  insects  and  small  animals  perforate  the 
ground  with  holes  and  thus  allow  the  air  to  circulate 
more  freely;  and  they  also  help  to  mix  the  subsoil  with 
the  surface  soil.  Clover,  alfalfa,  corn  and  other  plants  with 
long  roots  which  die  and  decay,  leave  air  passages  in  the 
soil.  After  rains  in  summer,  when  the  soil  is  moist  and 
at  a  temperature  suited  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  and 
fungi,  cultivation  lets  the  air  in,  presumably  aiding  many 
of  these  minute  agencies  in  their  work.  When  saline 
substances  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  by  capillary 
water,  they  are  left  there  as  a  cement  after  the  water 
has  evaporated,  and  bind  together  the  particles  of  sur- 
face soil  into  a  crust.  Here  cultivation  is  necessary  to 
open  the  soil  to  a  freer  circulation  of  the  air.  The  soil 
is  not  such  an  inert  mass  as  is  generally  believed.  The 
particles  are  moved  by  the  air,  water,  animals,  plants, 


THE  SOIL  AND  SOIL  FORMATION  69 

and  by  heat  and  cold,  especially  upon  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing. The  soil  is  literally  a  slowly  seething  mass  of  in- 
organic and  organic  activities  most  vital  and  interesting. 

Movement  of  air  in  the  soil. — Changes  in  temperature 
of  the  air  and  soil  and  barometric  air  pressure  cause  more 
or  less  movement  of  air  into  and  out  of  the  soil.  Air 
that  is  colder  than  the  soil  will  displace  the  warmer  air, 
thus  causing  the  circulation  of  air  into  the  soil ;  but  air 
warmer  than  the  soil  will  not  so  readily  displace  the 
colder  air  underground.  The  air  upon  flowing  into  the 
soil  carries  with  it  some  gaseous  products  other  than 
nitrogen  and  oxygen.  Air  serves  as  a  medium  through 
which  the  atmospheric  gases  can  slowly  diffuse  into  the 
soil,  and  through  which  free  gases  forming  in  the  soil 
can  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 

Movement  of  air  in  plants. — Plants  as  well  as  animals 
are  said  to  breathe.  Animals  inhale  oxygen  and  exhale 
carbon  dioxide.  Plants  reversing  the  process,  inhale 
dioxide  and  exhale  oxygen.  On  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
leaves  and  in  other  places  may  be  seen,  by  the  aid  of  a 
microscope,  certain  small  openings  called  stomata  or 
breathing  pores.  These  breathing  pores  communicate 
with  the  intercellular  spaces  of  the  leaves,  forming 
channels  through  which  the  air  circulates.  In  the  in- 
terior of  the  leaves  are  found  cells  containing  a  green 
substance  called  chlorophyll.  The  air  enters  through 
these  stomata,  passes  on  in  between  the  chlorophyll- 
bearing  cells,  and  by  osmosis  gets  into  the  cells  contain- 
ing chlorophyll.  Here  the  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  of  the 
air  is  broken  up  through  the  action  of  sunlight  into  car- 
bon and  oxygen.  The  carbon  combines  with  the  water 
(H2O)  that  has  been  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  plant, 
and  starch  is  formed.  Thus  6  CO2,  acted  upon  by  sun- 
light in  the  chlorophyll  bodies,  equals  6  C,  and  12  O; 
and  5  H2O  (5  molecules  of  water)  equals  10  H  and  5  O; 
and  when  recombined  equals  C^HjqOs,  starch,  with  I2  O 


70  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

to  Spare.  The  remaining  12  O,  oxygen,  liberated  from 
the  carbon  dioxide,  is  given  off,  or  is  sometimes  used  for 
some  purpose  within  the  plant  body. 

This  process  of  making  starch  can  only  take  place 
when  the  plant  is  exposed  to  light.  While  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  starch  is  the  first  product  formed  in  the  plant, 
for  the  present  we  may  consider  it  so.  We  may,  there- 
fore, look  upon  the  chlorophyll  bodies  as  little  manufac- 
tories of  starch.  To  decompose  carbon  dioxide  and  to 
build  up  starch  out  of  carbon  and  water,  requires  energy. 
This  the  plant  obtains  from  the  sunlight.  When  the 
animal  consumes  the  plant,  it  breaks  down  these  com- 
pounds and  changes  part  of  the  carbon  back  into  carbon 
dioxide  and  water.  The  stored-up  energy  is  liberated, 
and  is  used  by  the  animal  for  the  production  of  work  or 
heat  or  for  other  bodily  functions  requiring  energy. 

Animals  depend  on  plants. — Animals  cannot  combine 
the  nourishment  in  the  air  and  soil  for  use  as  food. 
Plants,  however,  take  the  food  substances  available  in 
the  air  and  soil,  and  by  the  aid  of  sunlight  build  these 
into  compounds  useful  to  animals  and  man.  While  only 
a  very  small  part  of  the  food  of  plants  is  obtained  from 
the  soil,  their  growth  under  ordinary  conditions  depends 
directly  upon  the  soil.  It  is  necessary  to  understand  the 
needs  of  the  plant  and  the  character  of  the  soil  so  that 
the  land  may  be  handled  in  the  manner  best  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  crop  we  wish  to  grow.  The  soil  is  a 
medium  through  which  the  plant  obtains  water  con- 
taining in  solution  the  mineral  and  other  parts  of  its  food, 
excepting  the  CO2  secured  from  the  air.  That  the  soil 
is  only  a  medium,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  plants  can 
be  grown  in  pure  water,  to  which  is  added  the  necessary 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  iron,  calcium,  etc., 
required  by  the  plant  when  grown  normally. 

Drainage  and  cultivation  accelerate  soil  aeration. — 
Drainage,  especially  tile  drainage,  where  the  drains  are 


THE  SOIL  AND   SOIL   FORMATION  7I 

put  in  near  together  in  heavy,  close  soils,  accelerates 
the  circulation  of  air  in  the  soil  to  a  considerable  degree. 
Drains  remove  the  water,  allowing  the  air  more  room 
among  the  particles  at  a  greater  depth.  When  rain 
causes  the  surface  of  the  free  water,  or  ground  water,  in 
the  soil  to  rise,  the  air  is,  of  course,  crowded  out  of  this 
saturated  part,  but  when  the  surface  of  the  zone  saturated 
with  water,  is  again  lowered  by  the  drains,  the  air  again 
settles  into  the  interstices  among  the  soil  particles. 
Drainage  allows  the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  deeper, 
and  these,  on  decaying,  leave  deeper  holes  through  which 
the  air  circulates  more  freely  in  dense  soils.  It  also  in- 
creases organic  matter,  bacterial  action  and  plant  feeding 
deeper  down  in  the  subsoil. 

Plowing  and  subsoiling  give  aid  to  all  these  forces 
which  tend  to  make  air  circulate  in  the  soil.  In  very  dry 
weather,  clay  soils  sometimes  become  so  much  shrunken 
that  large  cracks  are  produced  and  through  these  the 
air  can  circulate  in  the  soil.  In  the  northern  states 
freezing  does  a  great  deal  to  prevent  the  soil  from  be- 
coming too  compact.  By  the  freezing  and  the  resultant 
expanding  of  the  soil,  the  particles  are  pushed  apart  and 
left  more  open  for  the  following  summer  season.  Veg- 
etable manures  make  dense  soils  looser,  and  open  soils 
closer;  in  both  cases  adding  to  the  power  of  the  soil  to 
retain  water  and  soluble  plant  food. 

Soil  water  and  the  plant. — The  plant  secures  its  min- 
eral and  nitrogenous  food  supply  through  the  water  in 
the  soil,  absorbing  it  through  the  membranous  surface 
of  the  new  roots  and  root  hairs.  These  root  hairs,  which 
are  elongations  of  the  outer  cells  of  the  new  root  near 
the  growing  point,  increase  the  root  surface,  extend 
thin  membranous  branches  out  into  contact  with  the 
soil  and  enable  them  to  absorb  more  of  the  soil  moisture 
and  secure  more  food.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  water 
taken  up  by  the  plant  is  used  in  forming  new  tissue,  but 


72 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


passes  to  the  leaves  from  which  it  is  transpired  into  the 
air.  The  plant  food  from  the  soil  is  usually  in  very 
dilute  solutions.  All  the  cells  are  kept  charged  full  of 
water,  which  holds  the  soft  parts  of  the  plant  rigid  and 
upright.  The  water  is  given  off  through  the  same  open- 
ings in  the  leaves 
which  take  in  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  on 
warm  days  the  evapo- 
ration of  this  tran- 
spired moisture  helps 
to  keep  the  leaves  cool. 
Since  the  quantity  of 
water  transpired 
through  the  leaves 
amounts  to  from  200 
to  800  pounds  for  each 
pound  of  dry  matter 
produced  by  the  plant, 
a  good  crop  of  grain 
or  of  forage  will 
exhale  from  its  leaves 
during  the  season  sev- 
eral inches  of  rainfall ; 
that  is,  sufficient  water 
to  cover  the  soil  to  the 
depth  of  several  inches. 
Extent  of  roots  of 
crops. — The  roots  of 
our  field  crops  are 
much  longer,  much 
more  numerous,  spread 
farther,  and  penetrate  into  the  soil  to  greater  depths 
than  is  generally  realized.  On  fairly  open,  easily  pene- 
trable soils,  where  the  upper  portion  of  the  earth  is  too 
dry  for  the  plant  to  obtain  sufficient  food,  roots  are  sent 


Figure  17.  Com  accurately  drawn  from  meas- 
urements made  in  1886  representing  corn  (1)  at 
ten,  (2)  twenty,  (3)  thirty  and  (4)  forty  days  after 
planting.  The  drawing  represents  a  width  of  4 
feet  6  inches.  The  whorl  of  roots  which  spring 
from  the  seed  or  seminal  whorl,  as  at  1,  and  the 
whorls  which  arise  from  the  bases  of  the  sheaths 
of  the  first,  second  and  even  the  third  and  fourth 
leaves  or  blades,  strike  out  through  the  soil  in  the 
early,  cool,  moist  spring  season  in  a  nearly  hori- 
zontal direction.  Those  springing  from  the  fourth, 
fifth,  sixth  and  later  nodes  or  joints  go  nearly 
downward,  so  as  to  hunt  better  for  water  in  the 
drier,  warmer  midsummer.  Tlie  early  and  espe- 
cially the  later  roots  springing  from  the  stem — 
stem  roots— send  out  many  branches  with  sub- 
branches  reaching  every  part  of  the  soil.  The 
roots  of  com  planted  in  hills  4  feet  apart  each 
■way  even  in  the  young  stage,  as  at  4.  have  no 
trouble  in  reaching  all  parts  of  the  soil  between 
the  rows,  often  overlapping  1  or  2  feet  with,  the 
roots  of  the  adjacent  rows. 


THE   SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION 


71 


downward  four  to  six  feet,  and  in  some  cases  much 
deeper.  In  humid  regions,  however,  the  greater  number 
of  fine  root  branches  are  found  in  the  first  foot  or  i8 
inches  of  soil,  in  which  are  the  best  conditions  for  the 
roots  to  secure  food.  The  depth  at  which  most  plants 
prefer  to  feed,  if  sufficient  water  is  present,  is  the  lower 
half  or  two-thirds  of  the  furrow-slice,  and  that  part  of 
the  subsoil  immediately  beneath.   While  the  roots  which 

go  deepest  into  the 
earth  secure  some 
food,  the  chief  function 
of  the  deeper  roots  is 
to  bring  up  water 
when  the  supply  near 
the  surface  is  deficient. 
These  long,  deeply 
penetrating  roots  have 
few  branches  near  the 
tip,  while  nearer  the 
surface  of  the  soil  the 
root  branches  are  very 
numerous.  The  roots 
spread    out    so    as    to 

Figure  18.     At  6  are  shown  the  stem  roots  of  a  .         .. 

corn  plant  nearly  ready  to  tassel  out.  All  these  rcach  the  plant  lOOd  In 
roots  have  their  origin  in  the  base  of  the  stem,  and  ^ 

each   one  has   many   branches,  as  shown    at   X.  Tlie  la-trArAr    r\r\r^    anrl    rrwwt^v 

dotted   lines    mark    off   square    feet.      The    largest  cVCiy    HUUK    anu    CUIUCr 

roots  penetrate  nearly  4  feet  downward,  while  the  „r    +.!,„    •f,,*.»-/^-,Tr  oK^^    n-nA 

horizontal    spread,     including    the     branches,     not  OI    inC    lUrrOW-SnCC    aUQ 

shown    in    6,    is    over    6    feef.      This    drawing    was  „^^^^..^^„j.  1^„^^„   ^f +"U«. 

made  from  a  plant,  nearly  every  stem  root  of  which  UppCrmOSt  layCrS  Ot  tnC 
was  dug  out  by  means  of  a  small  wooden  trowel.  .         .. 

the  length,  depth  and  direction  of  the  root  being  SUDSOlL 
accurately  recorded  on  the  drawing.  _  .        , 

In  Figure  i8  is  shown 
the  root  system  of  a  corn  plant  ready  to  tassel.  The 
branch  roots  are  not  represented  at  6.  They  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  impossible  to  show  all  of  them  in 
this  diagram.  The  roots  there  shown  are  the  mere  frame- 
work, or  main  roots,  their  branches  and  sub-branches 
being  very  much  more  numerous.  At  "X"  is  shown  one  of 
the  roots  arising  from  the  stem,  with  its  branches.    Only 


74 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


the  outer,  recently  developed  ends  of  the  main  root  are 
active  in  absorbing  w^ater  containing  soluble  plant  food. 
The  older  surfaces  of  the  roots  are  covered  with  a  tough 
layer  of  barklike  cells  and  these  portions  of  the  roots 
serve  only  to  transport  water  carrying  soluble  plant  food 
up  to  the  stem,  and  to  hold  the  plant  in  place.  In 
Figure  17  are  diagrams  showing  the  roots  arising  from 
the  stem,  but  not  the  branch  roots,  of  corn  at  about  10, 
20,  30  and  40  daySj 
respectively,  after 
planting. 

Figure  19  shows  the 
general  spread  of  the 
roots  of  a  wheat  plant. 
The  roots  of  other 
cereal  grains  are  quite 
similar  to  those  of 
wheat.  The  roots  of 
our  tame  grasses  also 
penetrate  to  similar 
depths.  Clover  roots  go 
a  little  deeper  than  the 
roots  of  the  grasses 
and   grains,    while    the 

roots  of  some  perennial  Figure   19.    crown   and   stem  roots   of  a  mature 

■fioM    or-z-wrvo      Mlra,    oH^ol-fo  '"'heat    plant,    from    one    seed.      This    plant    stood 

HclU.    crops,    IIKC    aiiaiia,  alone  and   developed   over  a   dozen  culms.     There 

1                                   -.            J  are    about    100    stem    roots,    which    alone    are    here 

under       unusually       dry  shown,   each   of  which  had   for  some  distance  on 

..    ,  an  average  about  eight  branch  roots  to  the  inch, 

conditions,  maV  2!'0  to  a  making    a    wonderful    mat    of   roots    in    the    soil. 

*           y    o  Numerous  roots  penetrated  to  the  depth  of  4  feet 

depth    of    more    than    20  ^"^  ^''^  spread  of  the  roots  had  a  diameter  of  more 

feet.     But  in  all  cases 

the  plants,  whether  small,  or  even  if  as  large  as  trees, 
procure  most  of  their  food  in  the  furrow-slice  and  upper 
layers  of  subsoil.  Since  the  furrow-slice  and  the  part  of 
the  subsoil  just  below  it  are  the  portions  of  the  soil  w^hich 
supply  to  the  roots  of  crops  the  most  congenial  and 
richest  feeding  zone,  the  aim  of  the  farmer  should  be  to 


THE   SOIL   AND    SOIL    FORMATION 


75 


keep  these  zones  of  soil  supplied  with  the  proper  amount 
of  moisture  and  vegetable  matter  and  to  provide  for  the 
mechanical  conditions  which  best  promote  the  growth 
and  yield  of  crops.  Where  there  is  a  lack  of  mineral 
plant  food  this  also  must  be  supplied. 

Film  water  and  free  water. — In  order  that  the  relation 
of  water  to  the  roots  of  plants  may  be  better  understood, 
^ ^  the  following  explanation  is  here  pre- 
sented :  Place  a  pot  of  soil  in  a  hot  oven 
and  leave  it  until  nearly  all  the  moisture 
has  been  dried  out.  If  the  oven  is  kept 
at  the  boiling  point  of  water  a  day  or 
poSJ®  of  Si  °froS  longer,  practically  all  the  soil  moisture 
bin^orciXfbybak-  will  havc  been  changed  into  steam  and 
^°^'  driven  off  into  the  air  as  vapor,  and  the 

soil  will  weigh  much  less  than  before.  Even  at  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water  the  soil  will  so  tenaciously  hold  to  the 
last  particles  of  water  that  a  very  small  amount  will  re- 
main. We  will  assume  that  we  have  one  hundred 
pounds  of  water-free  soil  in  the  pot.  (Figure  20.)  Now 
place  this  pot  of  dried  soil  in  a  room  between  open 
windows  where  the  air  can  freely  pass 
over  it,  but  where  no  rain  can  strike 
it.  Upon  weighing  the  pot  of  soil  some 
days  later  we  find  that  it  weighs  a  few 
pounds  more  than  when  it  was  removed 
from  the  oven.  (Figure  21.)  This  in- 
crease in  weight  is  due  to  moisture  J^J^^f  t^^«  \^  ^^!^x.^ 
which  the  soil  has  absorbed  from  the  J'^^-SroscSic-'^Ss" 
air,  just  as  ordinary  salt  will  absorb  ^"''^' 
moisture  from  the  air.  The  air  always  contains 
water  in  the  form  of  gas,  often  called  vapor.  If 
we  now  close  the  room  up  tightly  and  place  several 
large  kettles  of  water  on  a  stove  and  cause  them 
to  boil  vigorously,  the  water  will  "  boil  away  "  and  the 
vapor  will  become  an  invisible  part  of  the  air  of  the 


Figure  21.  Pot  of  baked 
soil  after  standing  several 


^6  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

room.  The  soil  in  the  pot  will  again  increase  in  weight, 
since  it  will  be  able  to  gather  more  water  from  this  very- 
moist  air  than  it  had  secured  from  the  relatively  dry  air 
which  came  through  the  windows.  We  will  assume  that 
the  one  hundred  pounds  of  fire-dried  soil,  when  exposed 
for  some  days  to  the  outside  air,  absorbed  three  pounds 
of  water,  and  that  when  it  was  put  in  the  air  made  very 
moist  by  the  boiling  water,  it  absorbed  two  pounds  more. 
This  moisture  is  held  in  the  soil  as  a  delicate  film  about 
each  soil  particle,  or  within  the  minutest  pores  in  the 
particles  of  soil,  but  is  not  sufficient  to  bind  the  particles 
together  as  does  the  larger  amounts  of  capillary  moisture 
mentioned  below.  The  finest,  driest  road  dust  con- 
tains from  one  to  ten  per  cent  of  moisture  in  this 
form. 

By  means  of  a  fountain  throwmg  a  very  fine  spray  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  pot,  a  miniature  rainstorm 
may  now  be  produced  in  the  room.  As  the  tiny  rain- 
drops strike  the  surface  of  the  air-dry  soil,  they  are 
eagerly  seized  by  the  surfaces  of  the  small  particles  of 
soil.  While  the  soil  could  not  gather  and  condense  any 
more  of  the  vapor  from  the  air  and  associate  it  with  its 
own  particles,  the  surfaces  of  soil  particles  at  once  show 
a  strong  attraction  for  this  finely  sprayed  water,  or  vapor 
condensed  to  the  liquid  form.  The  water  and  the  sur- 
faces of  the  soil  particles  seem  to  desire  the  closest 
touch  with  each  other,  and,  as  the  water  is  a  mobile  fluid, 
it  spreads  out  in  thin  layers  over  the  attracting  surfaces 
of  the  minute  soil  particles,  enters  into  the  pores  within 
the  particles,  and  fills  the  capillary  spaces  among  them. 
If  one  particle  has  a  thicker  layer  of  water  on  its  sur- 
face than  its  neighbor,  the  water  is  soon  equalized  over 
all.  If  in  traveling  from  particle  to  particle  the  film  of 
water  finds  a  pore  space  or  interstice  unoccupied,  it  flows 
into  that.  As  the  rain  proceeds  the  particles  at  the  top 
of  the  soil  become  surcharged  with  water.     The  water- 


THE  SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION 


77 


iiiiiiii 


attracting  power  of  the  surfaces  of  the  uppermost  soil 
particles  is  satisfied,  and  they  allow  the  layer  of  particles 
next  beneath  to  draw  away  the  surplus.  In  this  way  a 
very  gentle  rain  is  taken  hold  of  by  the  soil  particles, 
and  is  slowly  moved  or  drawn  downward  by  what  is 
termed  the  capillary  force  of  the  soil.  The  soil  thus 
^_^__..«.^  takes  the   moisture   downward 

in  much  the  same  manner  as  a 
sponge,  when  placed  with  its 
lower  portion  in  a  small 
amount  of  water  in  a  saucer, 
absorbs  the  water  upward  into 
its  own  body,  though  very 
much   more   slowly.      Gravita- 

afi?y"Ve%airha°s^ti^n'fIllfntoff[    ^iou,  of   COUrSC,    aids   the    doWU- 

SM^rioifTa.  b?erslSl  n^e7r?J  Ward  Capillary  movement,  and 
half  way  down  through  the  mass.  gHghtly     retards     its     upward 

movement,  as  in  the  sponge.  When  filled,  or  saturated,  to 
its  full  capacity  with  capillary  water,  the  lOO  pounds  of 
original  dried,  water-free  soil,  with  its  added  water, 
weighs,  perhaps,  145  pounds.  In  Figure  22  the  soil  is 
shown  to  have  its  capillary 
powers  saturated  in  the  upper 
half. 

Crops  could  not  thrive  in 
soil  as  dry  as  that  represented 
in  Figure  20  or  even  that  in 
Figure  21,  with  only  hygro- 
scopic water  present,  but  plants 
which  thrive  in  our  arable 
lands  have,  through  the  cen- 
turies of  their  development,  become  accustomed  to 
soils  with  their  capillary  forces  only  partly  satisfied. 
Soil  with  its  capillary  forces  fully  satisfied  with  45 
pounds  of  water  to  the  hundred  pounds  of  soil,  would 
be  so  wet  that  corn,  and  most  other  crops,  would  not 


m 

SI 


Figure  23. 
soil  satisfied 
pot. 


I 

'i  I  ii  111 


Capillary    powers    of    the 
the     bottom     of    the 


78  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

thrive  so  v^ell  as  if  it  contained  only  20  to  35  pounds 
of  v^ater  to  the  hundred  pounds.  If  the  rainfall 
continues  until  no  more  soil  with  unsatisfied  capillary- 
power  exists  below,  the  excess  of  water  percolates  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pot,  obeying  the  law  of  gravitation, 
and  there  fills  the  larger  interstices, 
crowding  out  the  air.  This  water  is 
called  ground  water.  As  the  rain  con- 
,  tinues  until  the  ground  water  has  filled 

^^^J    all   the   openings   in    the    soil,    the   sur- 
.    face  of  this  ground  water  gradually  rises 

Figure  24.     Pot  of  soil  .        ^     ..  .    ,  .  / 

after  rain  has  fallen  on  amOUg  the  SOll  partlclcS  lU  the  bottom 
It     until     the     capillary        -       ,  ^ 

I'rrsatisfled"''  ami'^'t'hl  ^f  thc  pot,  forciug  the  air  out  from 
yoinVUef;°T£  among  the  soil  particles.  Thus  in 
S'^spaL^bSief  the  Figure  24  the  ground  water  is  shown 
mg  ^aif  the^^air  in^tife  to  have  filled  the  lowcr  half  of  the  pot, 

lower  half  of  the  mass.  i   m       •       .  i  ,     ,  i  re 

while  in  the  upper  part  the  surfaces  of 
the  particles  are  covered  with  what  water  the  capillary- 
spaces  and  surfaces  can  hold.  This  excess  of  rain,  upon 
entering  the  soil,  no  longer  retarded  be- 
cause all  capillary  force  is  satisfied, 
simply  obeys  gravitation,  percolates 
vertically  downward  until  it  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  ground  water.  In  most  of 
our  more  open  soils  this  excess  water 
sinks  far  downward  until  an  impervious  affjf  rlin^aT^faifenTn 
layer  is  reached,  where  it  forms  the  L"fixii  ^f^^Jr^thl 
ground   water    shown   by   the    level   of  wafer*^°Sracramuiated! 

,  ..,  ,1  -fTfr-.-i        1  .  filling    the    open    space 

water  m  the  wells.     With  the  continu-  in  the  top  of  the  pot 

.  .  and     running     off     oyer 

ance  of  the  rainfall,  if  the  spouts  A  "^«  "°i- 
and  B  in  the  pot  be  closed,  the  ground  water  will  rise, 
completely  filling  the  interspaces  within  the  soil.  More 
rain  will  cause  the  water  to  stand  above  the  soil  as  surface 
water,  and  to  run  over  the  rim  of  the  pot,  as  in  Figure  25. 
If  the  spout  A,  Figure  26,  be  now  opened,  the  surface 
water  and  the  ground  water  will  gradually  drain  out  to 


THE   SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION 


79 


Figure  26.  Pot  of  soil 
after  drain,  A,  has  been 
opened  and  all  of  the 
ground  water  but  that  part 
below  A  has  drained  out. 


supply  of  water. 


the  level  of  the  spout.  The  soil  will  still  be  very  moist, 
but,  if  placed  in  the  dry  air  of  a  living  room,  the  drying 
action  of  the  air  will  soon  remove  some  of  this  excess 
by  evaporating  moisture  from  the  surface  particles. 
These,  in  turn,  will  be  given  some  of  the  capillary  mois- 
ture from  the  particles  next  below.  Thus  there  will  be 
a  slow,  upward  flow  of  moisture,  sim- 
ilar to  the  upward  movement  of  oil  in 
a  lamp  wick,  or  to  the  upward  move- 
ment of  water  into  which  the  lower 
part  of  a  sponge  is  inserted.  If  the 
ground  water  is  sufficiently  near  the 
surface,  it  will  be  a  source  of  moisture, 
keeping  the  soil  and  subsoil  partially 
saturated  with  capillary  water,  thus 
providing  the  crops  with  a  constant 
In  Figure  26  the  water  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pot  not  drained  out,  because  the  drain  at  B  re- 
mains closed,  will  be  a  permanent  source  of  capillary 
water  to  the  upper  soil,  to  renew  that  taken  up  by 
evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  soil 
into  the  air  above,  or  that  absorbed  by 
plant  roots  growing  throughout  the 
upper  portion  of  the  soil.  The  air 
within  the  soil  is  kept  very  moist  by  the 
evaporation  which  takes  place  from  the 
many  moist  surfaces.  This  watery 
vapor  in  the  soil  air  diffuses  outwardly 
into  the  atmosphere  above,  aided  some- 
what by  the  slight  circulation  of  air  into 
and  out  of  the  soil,  thus  causing  some  loss  of  moisture 
which  does  not  pass  off  through  the  plant.  These  losses 
will  gradually  use  up  all  the  ground  water  held  below  the 
upper  drain.  Figure  26,  and  leave  the  soil  with  only 
capillary  water,  as  in  Figure  27.  The  soil  filled  only  with 
capillary  water,  as  in  Figure  2y,  is  also  gradually  dried 


Figure  27.  Tot  of  sat- 
urated ;soil  after  the 
■water  below  A  has  been 
drawn  upward  to  sup- 
ply that  gradually  evap- 
orated from  the  surface, 
leaving  only  capillary 
water  in  the  soil. 


80  FARM  DEVELOPMENT 

out  by  the  air,  if  left  in  a  dry  room,  so  that  only  hygro- 
scopic moisture  remains.  If  the  pot  is  again  placed  in 
an  oven  which  is  kept  at  or  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water,  the  soil  will  be  again  reduced  to  the  water-free 
state,  as  in  Figure  28. 

Figure  29  illustrates  the  fact  that  the  capillary  force 
carries  water  in  all  directions  in  the  soil.  A  funnel  tube 
is  used  to  carry  water  slowly  to  the  center  of  the  mass 
of  earth  made  air-dry,  as  in  Figure  28.  The  particles 
immediately  surrounding  the  point  of 
the  tube  are  saturated  with  the  water. 
This  water  clings  to  the  surfaces  of  the 
particles  and  spreads  out  in  thin  films 
8  over  surrounding  particles.  The  attrac- 
Figure  28.   Pot  of  soil  tlou   of   thc    neis^hborinsf   soil    particles 

from  which  the   capillary  ^  ^  ^ 

moisture  has  been  dried    caUSCS     thcSC     filmS     tO    Stream     OUtward 

out   by   ex'iosing   it  for 

fouoweT^^y*"  ^slve^rai  toward  drier  particles  where  the  capil- 
ovJn  sum^Stif  hot  'to  lary  forces  are  less  satisfied.  Thus  the 
sfeTm,  ^nd  "thus*"driviiS  moisture   movcs    upward    and    side  wise 

it  out  leave  the  soil  dry  .  .  «i  «  j     .  i   •    i 

of  water,   water  free,  nearly  as  raoidly  as  downward,  m  which 

"dry       substance,"       as,..  ..  -, 

"^f^^H  i£^*  1.  Figure  20   dircction  gravitation  helps  to  move  it, 

01    D&i96ci    soil   ^&s   Urst)  ^ 

placed  in  the  air.  while   slightly   retarding  the   flovvr  over 

surfaces  in  other  directions,  especially  its  upward  move- 
ment. 

The  soil  acts  like  a  sponge. — In  regions  of  light  rainfall 
most  soils,  instead  of  having  this  underground  supply  of 
water  stored  up  to  be  given  out  gradually,  are  generally 
not  very  moist  at  a  depth  of  several  feet.  The  rain  which 
falls  upon  the  soil,  in  part  runs  off  over  the  surface,  es- 
pecially if  it  be  hard  or  if  the  land  be  hilly.  That  which 
is  drawn  in  by  the  capillary  force  or  sinks  in  by  gravita- 
tion, is  taken  up  and  held  as  capillary  water,  or  is  added 
to  the  ground  water.  A  light  rain  is  carried  downward  a 
short  distance  only,  while  a  heavier  rain  will  go  corre- 
spondingly deeper.  Continuous  rainfall  for  a  number  of 
hours  is  necessary,  to  penetrate  to  the  depth  of  several 


THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  FORMATION  8l 

feet    and    to   satisfy   entirely   the   capillary   force    of   a 

dry  soil. 

In  case  sufficient  rain  falls  to  penetrate  to  only  a  few 
inches,  the  moist  surface  soil  soon  begins  to  give  up  its 
moisture  in  two  directions.  The  moister  particles  give 
up  their  water  to  the  drier  soil  particles  beneath,  as  was 
described  above,  and  as  soon  as  the  sun  warms  and  dries 
the  air  at  the  surface,  moisture  is  there  evaporated,  and 
there  is  a  consequent  movement  of 
water  within  the  moist  upper  zone  or 
layer  of  soil  toward  the  sun-dried  sur- 
face particles.  These  movements  will 
both  continue  for  a  time,  but  soon  the 
zone  of  moist  soil,  will  have  given  up  pi^,,  29.  Pot  of  air- 
sufficient  water  so  that  it  is  no  moister  fcscopir*^\fftrr^ 
than  the  subsoil  below,  and  the  down-  Sbe'^water^^  liowS 

J  ,  Mi  T-»     ■        •  run   into   the    center   of 

ward  movement  will  cease.     But  smce  the  mass  of  sou.    The 

-  1*1  •  f  1     .1        water    is    carried    away 

the  sun  and  wmd  are  m  almost  daily  from  the  point  of  the 

''      tube  in  all  directions  by 

action  in  summer  in  evaporating  water  f^^avurcauLs^f  St 

from  the  surface  of  the  soil,  there  is  a  KiTayThanTn  othir 

movement  of  capillary  moisture  upward  fiS^'being  ^much ""£ 

nearly  all  the  time.     Part  of  this  mov-  ™rce  under  tiiese^^con? 

•  p  J  •       •  1      •        •  ditlons,  causes  the  water 

mg  mass  01  water  is  intercepted,  in  its   to  go  upward  andside- 

.  J-  '  ^igg   as   well   as   down- 

slow  Upward  flow,  by  plants,  which  take   '"'^'J- 
it  into  their  roots,  pass  it  to  the  leaves  and  there  tran- 
spire it  into  the  atmosphere. 

Water-holding  power  varies  with  different  soils. — 
Some  soils  retain  much  more  hygroscopic  moisture 
when  air-dried  than  others,  some  soils  will  hold  a  much 
larger  amount  of  capillary  moisture  than  others,  and 
soils  vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of  water  which  can  flow 
into  their  interstices  as  ground  water.  Thus  a  hundred 
pounds  of  soil  containing  clay  or  vegetable  matter,  when 
drenched  with  water,  will  cling  to,  and  prevent  from 
running  out  of,  its  body  much  more  water  than  will  a 
sand;y  soil.    In  soils  which  ar^  so  constituted  as  to  hol4 


82 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


much  water,  plants  can  better  endure  either  periods  of 
drouth  or  an  excessive  rainfall.  Vegetable  manures 
added  to  soils,  green  crops  plowed  under,  or  the  roots  of 
plants  in  the  soil,  soon  decay,  and  while  decaying  these 
substances  aid  the  soil  in  retaining  capillary  moisture. 

Capillarity  illustrated. — The  word  capillarity  has  such 
an  important  use  and   meaning  that  an   explanation   is 
necessary.      It    is     derived     from    the 
Latin  word  capillus,  meaning  a  hair. 

In    Figure    30    are    shown    several 
very  small  glass  tubes  with  their  ends 
dipped  in  water.     It  will  be  observed 
Figure  30.   Showing  iiow  that  thc  watcr  riscs  inside  the  tubes. 

•water  rises  in  small  cainl-    ,_,  i       i  •        .  <  r  r 

lary  tubes    It  rises  higher    1  hc  watcr   auQ   the   mside   suriacc   of 

in  the  smaller  tubes  than 

In  the  larger  ones.  the    glass    havc    au    affinity    for    each 

other  sufficient  to  draw  the  fluid  up  into  the  tubes.  The 
fact  that  this  action  of  water  in  very  minute  hairlike 
tubes  was  the  first  clearly  observed  case 
in  which  water  attached  to  and  crept 
over  surfaces  and  through  small  open- 
ings is  probably  the  reason  that  the 
name  capillary  action  was  given  to  this 
movement  of  water  in  the  soil.  It  will 
be  observed  in  the  illustration  that  the 
water  rises  higher  in  the  smaller  tubes     Figure  31.    when  two 

.1  .        ,1         t  mf  r  plates    of     glass,     placed 

than  m  the  larger  ones.     I  he  force  ex-  so  as  to  touch  at  one 

,    .  .  -      ,  ,     edge   and  Va  inch  apart 

erted  is  the  attraction  of  the  water  and   at  the  other  edge  imye 

their     ends     placed     in 

the  inner  surface  of  the  glass  for  each  J^^^^betwlen'^them'^'lf 
other.  In  the  small  tubes  the  surface  Sa°t^  ifsing^hfe'^Sn 
of  glass  is  larger  in  proportion  to  the  Sati'^are^'osSt  Yo"- 
load  of  water  than  in  the  tubes  where  ^^"^^^* 
the  column  of  water  has  a  greater  diameter.  The  action 
of  this  force  is  further  illustrated  in  Figure  31,  showing 
that  it  is  not  the  form  of  the  tube,  but  the  attraction  of 
the  surfaces  of  the  glass,  which  carries  the  water  up- 
ward.   The  attraction  of  the  water  for  the  surfaces  is 


THE   SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION 


83 


called  adhesion.  The  particles  of  fine  clay  being  several 
hundred  times  smaller  than  the  particles  of  coarse  sand, 
there  is  presented  to  the  water  a  very  much  larger  total 
area  of  surfaces  in  a  given  bulk  of  clay  soil  than  in  sand ; 
and,  therefore,  the  total  area  of  the  surface  films  is  much 
greater.  In  case  of  a  soil  filled  with  ground  water,  as  in 
Figure  2.6,  where  the  drain  is  opened,  the  movement  is 
downward  in  response  to  gravitation.  When  all  this 
hydrostatic  or  ground  water  has 
been  drained  out,  leaving  the  soil 
with  its  capillary  power  all  satis- 
fied, the  films  covering  the  par- 
ticles are  relatively  thick.  As  the 
soil  dries  out  from  evaporation 
and  through  removal  by  the  roots 
of  plants,  this  film  becomes 
thinner,  until  only  the  hygro- 
scopic water — that  which  the  air 
cannot  take  away — remains. 
When  the  films  are  thick,  the 
capillary  water  moves  rather 
freely  toward  a  point  where  a 
root  is  exhausting  the  supply; 
while,  where  the  film  is  thin,  there 
Figure  32.   The  new  wick  in  the  src     mauy     morc     opcuiugs,     or 

bottom  of  the  lamp  is  attached  to     _._-,^-^„     ;^    .*.l,  ^    „^:i      ^^j%    4.1,^    ..^^^^^ 

the  old  wick  by  threads  which  do  spaccs,  m  the  soil,  aud  the  move- 
not  draw  the  two   wick  ends  quite  >         r  .  •  i  j^       j     j 

together.    The  oil  in  rising  by  mcut  of  watcr  IS  much  retarded 

capillarity  through  the  wick  is  un-     -  ,  ...  .  ,  -.         -., 

able    to    pass    this    opening    where     bV    the    iriCtlOn     m    thC    thm    hlmS. 
the  capillary  connections  are  sepa-     ^ 

rated.  The     movcmcut     of    water     and 

plant  food  toward  the  growing  roots  of  plants,  however, 
is  not  so  rapid  as  many  suppose. 

Other  facts  concerning  this  interesting  force  are  shown 
in  Figures  32  and  33.  A  new  lamp  wick,  Figure  32,  is 
attached  to  an  old  one,  which  has  become  too  short  to 
reach  the  oil,  but  the  threads  connecting  the  two  ends 
are   not   drawn   tightly,   leaving  the   two  ends   slightly 


84 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Figure     33.      Soil     satu- 


apart,  and  the  interstices  among  the  threads  between 
the  two  wicks  being  too  large  to  form  capillary  spaces, 
little  or  no  oil  rises  to  the  flame.  In  Figure  33,  at  a 
depth  of  several  feet,  A,  there  is  ground  water ;  at  B,  the 
soil  is  well  supplied  with  capillary  water;  at  C,  as  is 
often  the  case  in  very  dry  sections  of 
the  country,  a  layer  of  coarse  straw,  ly- 
ing up  dry  and  loose,  is  plowed  under. 
The  moisture  cannot  pass  by  capillary 
movement  upward  through  the  layer 
C,  to  moisten  the  furrow-slice,  D,  and 
the  "moisture  line,"  or  the  zone  of  If ihe^'^^^ouom'^* a- ""^^p- 
capillary  moisture,  rises  only  to  C;  ff1he"'?pp^er^t'b7o'irB: 
thus  shutting  off  the  seeds  from  ob-    tL''1u?piy'  of°|r?^^ 

...  J  »  T-\      •        ^  j1  m     water.     At   C,   a  layer  of 

tammg    water    from    D,    just    as    the    oil     coarse      straw     is      repre- 
f.    .^  .  1         n  •         1         1  sented     as     hanng     been 

fails  to  rise  to  the  flame  in  the  lamp   plowed   under   the   fur- 

^     row -slice,   D. 

in  Figure  32.  The  layer  of  coarse  straw 
makes  a  mulch  of  the  entire  furrow-slice,  protecting  the 
moisture  below  from  rising  and  wasting  by  evapora- 
tion, which  causes 
.^  injury  by  forcing  the 
roots  of  the  plants  to 
feed  only  in  the  sub- 
soil. In  most  coun- 
tries there  is  sufficient 
moisture  so  that  a 
layer  of  dry  straw  soon 
decays  and  no  longer 
acts  as  a  barrier  be- 
tween the  subsoil  and 
The 

lowey  half    or'  two"-thirds    of    the    furrow-slice,    F,      StronP'er 
to  the  bottom  of  the  dust  blanket.  C.  '^  S  ^ 

power  of  the  decaying 
plant  substance,  on  the  other  hand,  secures  and  holds 
within  itself  larger  amounts  of  water,  and  thus  both 
water  and  plant  food  are  most  liberally  supplied  to  the 


Figure    34.      E,    subsoil.      D,    furrow-slice    with      .-i  r  i- 

dust     blanket     at     surface     shown     darker.      Upper      tnC      lUrrOW-SllCC. 
surface    of    capillary    water    here    rises    through    the 

capillary 


THE   SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION 


8s 


roots  and  the  plant  feeds  in  the  upper  soil  zone  which  con- 
tains the  most  plant  food.  Where  the  recently  plowed  fur- 
row-slice is  very  porous  and  loose,  it  also  acts  as  a  mulch 
to  retard  the  upward  flow  of  moisture  by  capillarity. 

Dust  blanket  and  dirt  mulch. — The  use  of  a  dirt  mulch 
or  dust  blanket  is  illustrated  in  Figure  34.  Here  the 
furrow-slice,  D,  rests  upon  the  subsoil,  E,  with  which  it 
is  in  intimate  contact,  so  that  the  capillary  water  may 

rise  into  it.  To  pre- 
vent the  water  from 
rising  entirely  to  the 
surface,  there  by  the 
aid  of  the  sun's  heat  to 
be  evaporated  into  the 
atmosphere,  the  upper 
zone  of  soil,  C,  is  kept 
broken  up  and  made 
too    mellow    and    open 

Figure     35.     Shows     a     pervious     mass     over     a  r_„  .  i   ^     ,,ro-<-^*-     +/^     «-:o« 

layer  of  impervious  clay  or  stone,  B.  Water  falling  lOr  tUC      WatCr     tO     riSe 

on    the    upland    at    T>,    sinks    dovyn    to    the    im-  ,■.  <      •.    i         j.i_        r 

pervious    layer    of    clay    and    seeps    forward    until  tnrOUgn    It    Dy   tnC    lOrCe 

the    hillside   is   reached,    and   there   flows   out,    re-           .  .,,        .  rrr  . 

suiting  in  a  seepy  hillside,   as  at  K,   or  possibly  oi  CaplllaritV.            i   h  C 

forming  a   definite  spring.  ^  -^ 

moisture  line  here  is  at 
the  bottom  of  C,  thus  bringing  the  moisture  zone  up  so 
as  to  include  the  lower  two-thirds,  F,  of  the  furrow-slice 
D,  and  allow  the  roots  of  crops  to  feed  in  this  portion 
of  soil,  which  is  not  only  the  richest  in  plant  food,  but  is 
the  most  congenial  for  the  roots  of  plants  and  for  their 
little  helpers,  the  soil  bacteria. 

The  general  movements  of  water  in  the  earth. — The 
surface  of  the  water  in  our  wells  shows  that  the  ground 
water  does  not  actually  rise  near  the  surface.  The 
upper  part  of  the  earth  acts  as  a  storage  sponge,  and 
gets  its  supply  of  water  annually  from  the  rainfall,  ex- 
cepting cases  where  irrigation  is  practiced,  or  in  rare 
cases  where  water  seeps  out  of  hillsides  and  forms  moist, 
springlike   areas,   or   flows   along  porous   layers   under- 


86 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


as 

is  high 


neath  level  tracts,  there  serving  as  natural  sub-irrigat- 
ing waters  to  be  drawn  upward  by  capillarity,  or  to  be 
reached  direct  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Porous  earth,  as 
at  D,  Figure  35,  allows  part  of  the  rainfall  to  sink  deeply. 
This  upon  reaching  a  porous  layer,  as  gravel,  B,  lying 
upon  impervious  clay  or  rock,  seeps  sidewise,  reaching 
the  surface  at  a  lower  level,  K.  Here  it  may  flow  out 
as  a  spring,  or  simply  seep  slowly  out,  and  result  in  keep- 
ing the  hillside  moist,  or  it  may  flow  down  through  the 
open  soil  in  the  valley  and  keep  that  moist,  or  it  may 
flow  into  an  open  water-bearing  stratum  with  impervious 
clay  or  rock  both  above  and  below,  and  lie  there  with  very 
little  movement.  In  such  cases  this  water  is  often  sub- 
jected to  great  pressure,  because  the  head  of  water  above, 
at    B,    Figure    36, 

A  well  sunk  ,,  ..esS^lSI^^B 

into  such  a  vein  of 
water  under  pressure, 
makes  an  opening 
through  which  artesian 
water  rises  to,  or 
above,  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  or  oftener 
only  a  short  distance 
in  the  well. 

In  regions  where  the 
rainfall  is  not  ample, 
the  furrow-slice  should 
be  kept  as  mellow  as 
practicable  so  as  to  give  easy  access  to  rain  water,  that 
none  may  be  lost  by  flowing  oflF  over  the  surface.  An 
open,  loose  furrow-slice,  four  or  more  inches  thick,  in  a 
climate  with  too  little  rainfall  and  with  dry,  hot  atmos- 
phere and  drying  winds,  does  much  to  retard  the  loss 
of  moisture  from  the  soil  by  evaporation.  The  moisture 
line,  under  such  conditions,  rises  only  to  the  bottom  of 


Figure  36.  Shows  how  water  confined  between 
impervious  strata,  as  in  A  between  B  and  C,  is 
subjected  to  pressure,  making  it  possible  to  secure 
flowing  wells,  as  at  D.  The  water  of  rains,  sinking 
in  the  pervious  earth  to  the  right  of  A,  flows  be- 
tween the  impervious  layers.  The  pressure  at  any 
point  Is  sufficient  to  force  the  water  to  rise  to  a 
height  somewhat  less  than  the  height  of  the  water 
in   the  region  where  it  enters  the  soil. 


THE  SOIL   AND   SOIL   FORMATION  87 

the  furrow-slice  and  the  roots  of  crops  must  feed  in  the 
subsoil,  not  being  able  to  get  food  from  the  dry,  porous 
furrow-slice.  For  this  reason  spring  plowing  for  spring- 
sown  grains  in  dry  regions  sometimes  serves  as  a  more 
open,  more  efficient  dust  blanket  than  the  more  compact 
fall-plowed  furrow-slice,  and  thus  sometimes  enables  the 
farmer  to  produce  better  crops  than  autumn  plowing, 
which  is  ordinarily  the  better  practice  in  humid  regions. 
The  stubble  standing  on  the  land  over  winter  in  a  windy 
country  often  holds  snow  which,  upon  melting,  largely 
enters  the  soil,  leaving  it  more  moist  in  the  spring  than 
would  be  the  wind-swept  fall-plowed  land.  The  looser 
spring-plowed  furrow-slice,  then,  better  conserves  water 
from  melting  snows  and  from  spring  rains. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  loose  furrow-slice  affords  very 
poor  conditions  for  seeds  to  germinate,  and,  under  most 
conditions,  the  better  results  come  from  having  the 
lower  part  of  the  furrow-slice  compact  and  the  upper 
part  kept  open  by  cultivation  to  serve  as  the  blanket  of 
loose  earth,  or  dirt  mulch,  to  retard  evaporation.  Under 
very  dry  conditions  the  deep,  loose  furrow-slice  is  so  open 
and  dry  that  seeds  will  not  germinate ;  and  a  heavy  rain 
is  required  to  make  the  furrow-slice  sufficiently  moist  to 
provide  the  necessary  moisture  to  start  the  seeds.  A  still 
heavier  rain  is  required  in  order  that  moisture  may  pene- 
trate to  the  solid  earth  below  the  furrow-slice,  there  to 
become  a  part  of  the  stored-up  water  of  the  subsoil. 

The  moldboard  or  disk  plow  inverts  and  pulverizes 
the  soil,  and  mixes  into  it  such  stubble  and  weeds  as 
may  have  grown,  and  such  manure  or  other  fertilizers 
as  may  have  been  applied  to  it.  The  weight  of  the 
earth,  the  action  of  water,  bacteria  and  other  agencies 
which  encourage  decay,  bring  the  coarse  vegetable  mat- 
ter and  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow-slice  into  a  compact 
mass  closely  adhering  to  the  subsoil.  The  cultivating 
implement  again  loosens  the  upper  part  of  the  furrow- 


88  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

slice  in  the  preparation  for  planting,  and  keeps  it  loose 
and  open  during  the  cultivation  of  crops  planted  in  rows 
for  intertillage.  Both  plow^ing  and  tillage  have  other 
functions  than  so  controlling  the  water  as  to  provide 
the  optimum  amount  of  film  water  best  for  the  plants. 
Crops  thrive  with  an  amount  of  water  somewhat  less 
than  that  required  to  entirely  satisfy  the  force  of  capil- 
larity, and  can  adjust  themselves  to  some  range  of 
moisture  content  between  saturation  of  capillarity  and 
such  a  low  amount  of  water  that  they  cannot  get  all 
they  need,  and  wither,  and  are  stunted  in  their  growth. 
In  drouthy  regions,  the  application  of  water  and  the  con- 
servation of  soil  water  are  often  the  controlling  factors 
in  crop  production. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  SELECTION  OF  A  FARM   HOME 

The  selection  of  a  farm  for  a  permanent  family  home 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  Here  most  of  the  life 
is  to  be  spent ;  and  upon  the  quality,  character  and  loca- 
tion of  the  farm  largely  depends  the  success  and  the 
happiness  of  each  and  every  member  of  the  family.  Its 
importance  as  a  place  for  developing  the  home,  bringing 
up  a  family,  enjoying  family  ties,  entertaining  friends, 
and  working  out  life's  success,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. If  its  location  is  unsuitable,  its  soil  poor  or 
difficult  to  subdue,  or  if  it  be  otherwise  poorly  adapted 
to  the  particular  needs  of  the  family,  there  may  be  life- 
long regret  at  the  choice.  It  is  highly  important  to  the 
farm  family  to  feel  that  it  is  permanently  located,  and 
that  whatever  is  done  to  build  up  the  place  is  done  with 
a  view  to  its  permanent  usefulness  as  the  foundation  of 
a  happy  and  prosperous  home,  for  generations,  of  a 
strong,  prosperous  family. 

The  farm  the  foundation  of  the  business. — Each  farmer 
should  choose  a  farm  suited  to  the  kind  of  farming  he 
desires  to  follow.  It  is  far  better  to  spend  some  time 
looking  about,  so  as  to  be  fully  suited,  than  to  take  a 
farm  that  is  easily  obtainable,  but  not  just  adapted  to 
the  kind  of  farming  to  be  done.  A  fruit  farm  too  far 
away  from  market,  a  sheep  farm  on  too  low  land,  or  a 
grain  farm  in  a  sandy,  wooded  country,  would  be  an 
unfortunate  choice.  In  such  regions  as  the  great  prairies 
of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley,  one  can  easily  find  lands 
suited  to  general  farming,  that  is,  to  the  production  of 
grain,  forage  crops  and  live  stock  in  combination.  But 
if  one  wishes  to  do  vegetable  gardening,  he  should  avoid 


90  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

the  heavy  lands  and  secure  a  soil  somewhat  lighter.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  often  necessary  to  adapt  the  busi- 
ness to  the  farm  which  it  is  practicable  to  secure. 

Producing  capacity. — Generally  the  producing  capacity 
of  the  soil  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  lands  of 
the  western  states  are  rising  in  value  and  in  price  from 
decade  to  decade.  Lands  with  large  native  fertility  will 
generally  rise  in  value  more  rapidly  than  will  the  more 
sandy  lands,  or  lands  which  for  other  reasons  are  not 
especially  productive.  No  one  ever  hears  of  farms  on 
mixed  black  prairie  soils  of  the  west  being  abandoned, 
as  are  sometimes  the  farms  of  hilly  New  England,  or 
the  sandier  lands  of  the  pine  regions,  or  the  drouthy 
lands  of  the  Great  Plains  area.  The  soil  surveys  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  some 
state  bureaus  will  be  great  aids  in  selecting  the  regions 
to  investigate  for  good  soils  and  desirable  farms. 

Ability  to  withstand  drouth. — Drouth  resistance  is  an- 
other important  quality,  especially  to  soils  in,  or  border- 
ing on,  the  great  semi-arid  regions.  Here  it  is  not  so 
much  a  question  of  fertility,  as  of  soil  moisture.  Farm- 
ing on  drouthy,  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  is  more  specula- 
tive ;  one  year  the  crop  may  be  satisfactory,  but  another 
year  the  crop  is  ruined  by  the  drouth.  Generally,  sandy 
lands  sell  for  more  than  they  are  worth,  while  the  re- 
verse is  true  of  the  stronger  lands.  Far  to  the  north, 
heavy  lands  are  at  a  disadvantage  because  they  are 
too   cold. 

Healthfulness. — In  choosing  a  locality  in  which  to  pur- 
chase a  farm,  a  healthful  climate  is  of  importance,  as 
such  a  climate  is  necessary  to  develop  strong,  useful  and 
happy  people.  Many  sections  once  unhealthful,  as 
large  parts  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  have  been  made 
healthful  by  drainage,  and  many  regions  needing  drain- 
age will,  ere  long,  be  so  completely  drained  as  to  be  free 
from     malarial     diseases.     Sufficient    and     evenly    dis- 


THE   SELECTION   OF   A   FARM    HOME  9I 

tributed  rainfall  is  of  prime  importance.  Irrigation  can 
be  resorted  to  in  some  districts,  and,  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  water,  farming  under  this  plan  is  even 
more  satisfactory  than  where  the  dependence  is  upon 
rain.  In  irrigation  the  water  can  be  supplied  when 
needed,  and  there  is  usually  no  rain  to  interfere  when 
crops  are  being  cured.  Often  farms  needing  drainage 
or  irrigation  can  be  purchased,  and  drained  or  irrigated 
with  great  profit  by  those  who  know  how  to  make  these 
improvements. 

Proximity  to  markets  and  large  cities  is  a  very  great 
advantage.  One  cannot  forecast  how  the  farming  busi- 
ness may  develop,  and,  in  any  event,  nearness  to  com- 
petitive markets  is  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer. 
Large  cities  provide  many  advantages  which  cannot  be 
enjoyed  by  those  who  live  far  from  the  great  centers  of 
population.  Higher  prices  can  be  paid  for  lands  near 
large  cities.  Not  only  is  the  cost  of  freight  less  on  the 
products  to  be  sold  or  purchased,  but  advantages  may 
be  taken  of  city  opportunities  of  many  kinds,  if  the  trip 
by  steam,  or  trolley,  or  team  be  not  too  long.  It  is  also 
a  great  advantage  to  farmers  to  come  frequently  into 
contact  with  the  bustling  life  of  cities. 

Character  of  neighbors. — It  pays  the  home  seeker  to 
consider  carefully  the  class  of  neighbors  surrounding 
the  farm  he  contemplates  selecting.  People  generally 
do  as  those  about  them  show  that  they  expect  them  to 
do.  The  farmer  and  his  children  are  more  likely  to  be 
altruistic,  lovable,  honorable,  industrious,  businesslike, 
enterprising  and  thoroughly  up  to  date  if  they  live 
among  neighbors  who  are  congenial,  upright,  industrious, 
thrifty  and  up  with  the  times.  Life  is  not  all  the  "  rais- 
ing of  corn,  to  raise  more  hogs,  to  buy  more  land,  to  raise 
more  corn,"  etc. ;  the  enjoyment  of  social  and  public 
life,  as  well  as  the  enjoyment  of  horne  and  family,  are 
considerations  of  the  very  highest  importance.     It  is  very 


92  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

desirable  that  the  neighbors  with  whom  one  must  asso- 
ciate, exchange  views  and  confidences,  and  with  whom 
the  children  of  the  family  must  associate  in  school,  in 
church,  and  in  social  functions,  should  be  somewhat  sim- 
ilar in  tastes  and  habits  and  withal  honorable  and  agree- 
able. Many  a  farmer  has  become  backward  and  even 
morose  because  of  a  lack  of  social  life. 

Children  in  rural  homes  learn  how  to  do  with  things 
better  than  they  learn  how  to  think  about  things.  They 
need  to  go  to  school  and  be  taught  to  think  about  things 
around  them,  but,  quite  as  important,  they  need  to  learn 
how  to  think  about  people  and  to  do  with  people.  Rural 
youths  can  nearly  as  well  afford  to  fail  to  learn  books  as 
to  be  deprived  of  contact  with  their  playfellows  at  school 
and  with  the  people  they  meet  at  church  or  at  other 
gatherings,  as  in  the  farm  home  or  in  the  village.  Prox- 
imity to  good  schools  and  churches,  and  nearness  to  town 
centers,  are  all  of  large  value  in  making  up  a  decision  as 
to  where  to  select  a  farm. 

Care  in  judging  the  value  of  soils. — In  inspecting  the 
soil  itself,  it  is  easy  to  determine  whether  a  soil  is  clayey, 
sandy,  gravelly;  or,  if  a  mixed  soil,  whether  it  is  the 
happy  medium,  or  golden  mean,  made  up  of  nearly  equal 
parts  of  sand  and  clay.  The  texture  of  the  surface  soil 
when  wet,  and  also  when  dry,  should  be  observed.  The 
heaviness  or  ease  of  tillage  operations  should  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Other  factors  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count are  whether  the  land  is  level  or  hilly,  whether 
there  are  many  stones  to  be  removed ;  and  often  the 
number,  size  and  kind  of  stumps,  must  be  considered. 

The  butter  dealer  will  inspect  every  jar  of  butter  with 
his  butter  trier,  or,  at  least,  a  sample  of  every  lot,  but  the 
farmer  too  often  looks  only  at  the  surface  soil.  With  the 
aid  of  a  common  spade  or  with  a  post-hole  digger,  the 
subsoil  to  the  depth  of  three  or  more  feet  may  easily  be  ob- 
served ;  and  since  one  can  in  this  way  make  the  best  anal- 


THE   SELECTIOl^    OF  A   FARM    HOME  93 

ysis  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  it  should  never  be  neglected. 
In  many  cases  upturned  stumps  show  the  quality  of  the 
subsoil,  and  burrowing  animals  may  have  brought  to  the 
surface  the  deeper  earth.  The  experienced  land  judge 
has  many  ways  in  which  to  determine  the  quality  of  the 
soil.  The  person  who  will  make  an  earnest  effort  can 
find  many  ways  of  judging  the  fertility,  the  water-holding 
power,  and  the  wearing  ability  of  a  soil.  Growing  crops 
tell  their  story,  though  the  kind  of  season  must  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Sandy  lands  may  have  large  crops 
during  a  moist  year,  partly  because  drouth  for  a  few 
previous  seasons  may  have  so  prevented  the  growth  of 
crops  that  there  are  unusually  favorable  conditions  for 
plant  growth,  resulting  in  an  exceptionally  large  crop. 
The  testimony  of  residents  on  adjoining  lands  is  of  the 
greatest  value,  especially  if  the  home  seeker  knows  how 
to   draw  out   and   weigh   information. 

One  need  not  depend  upon  the  appearance  of  the  cul- 
tivated grasses  and  clovers  alone,  but  can  find  out  much 
about  the  soil  by  the  native  plants.  Land  which  pro- 
duces a  thick  crop  of  large  weeds,  either  native  or  intro- 
duced, gives  evidence  of  strength  and  crop-producing 
power.  In  timber  sections  trees  are  much  used  as  an 
index  to  the  character  of  the  soil.  Thus,  in  the  North, 
jack  pine  grows  on  very  sandy  land,  Norway  pine  on 
land  usually  not  quite  so  sandy,  white  pine  on  still 
stronger  sandy  loam  and  on  mixed  soils. 

Some  kinds  of  oak,  in  a  given  region,  will  be  found  to 
grow  on  sandy  land,  other  kinds  only  on  strong  soil  of 
mixed  sand  and  clay.  Sugar  maples  and  some  other 
deciduous  trees  grow  only  on  the  strong  mixed  soils. 
Where  soil  surveys  have  been  made  by  the  Bureau  of 
Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
or  by  a  state  department  or  experiment  station,  the  soil 
maps  showing  the  areas  of  soils  of  different  classes  will 
be  found  valuable  aids  in  selecting  a  farm. 


94  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Special  and  general  considerations  are  often  worthy 
of  attention.  A  perennial  spring  of  water  near  the 
barns  or  near  the  dwelling  has  value.  The  ease 
or  difficulty  of  getting  well  water  should  be  noted,  also 
the  quality  of  the  water.  The  possibility  of  using  irriga- 
tion water  often  modifies  the  desirability  of  the  land. 
Not  only  in  the  Plains  Region,  but  even  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  waters  for  irrigation  will  no  doubt 
sometime  be  highly  valued.  In  a  new  section  of  coun- 
try, free  pasturage  of  commons  which  are  likely  to  re- 
main open  to  the  public  for  a  long  series  of  years,  may 
have  considerable  value  in  connection  with  the  farm  to 
be  bought. 

The  purchase  and  building  up  of  a  farm  is  such  a  seri- 
ous life  matter  that  the  farmer  should  look  the  entire 
situation  over  beforehand  with  a  view  to  locating  build- 
ings, developing  the  fields,  etc.  It  is  very  desirable  to 
have  land  suitable  for  evolving  a  highly  organized  farm. 
A  place  is  needed  for  buildings  where  there  is  good 
drainage,  opportunity  to  protect  from  cold  winds  by 
means  of  a  grove,  land  for  garden,  orchard,  lawn  and 
stock  paddocks.  This  location  should  be  so  situated  as  to 
be  readily  accessible,  by  means  of  lanes  and  cartways,  to 
all  the  fields  of  the  farm.  The  cost  and  ease  of  develop- 
ment, including  the  cost  of  clearing,  breaking,  draining, 
laying  out  fences  and  developing  the  fields  of  the  farm, 
are  all  matters  which  should  be  carefully  considered  at 
the  time  the  choice  is  being  made  among  the  different 
farms  under  consideration. 

Hunt  for  a  bargain. — It  pays  to  hunt  for  a  bargain. 
Occasionally  farms  are  offered  much  below  their  normal 
or  intrinsic  values,  but  the  effort  to  make  a  profit  on  the 
purchase  price  should  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  settle 
on  land  which  is  not  suitable  for  the  kind  of  farming  to 
be  entered  upon,  or  is  otherwise  very  unsatisfactory  as  a 
permanent  home  for  the  family.     No  other  part  of  the 


THE  SELECTION   OF  A  FARM    HOME  95 

farmer's  remuneration  has  the  high  value  of  the 
happy  home  life.  We  may  not  look  too  much  at 
money  getting,  but  we  certainly  do  not  look  enough  at 
home  making.  The  farm  home  is  a  little  world  in  itself. 
Its  sunshine,  its  joy,  its  influence  in  producing  strong 
happy  people,  its  potentiality  of  national  strength,  its 
power  in  conserving  morals,  its  opportunities  for  man's 
communion  with  nature  and  nature's  God,'  combine  to 
make  it  important.  We  should  choose  the  farm  home 
wisely,  that  we  may  there  express  our  lives  in  doing 
what  we  can  for  ourselves,  our  families  and  our  country. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PLANNING    THE    FARM 

General  foundation  plans  for  the  farm  are  next  in  im- 
portance to  the  selection  of  the  farm.  It  should  be  so 
laid  out  and  improved  as  to  make  a  highly  organized 
structure,  even  though  many  years  must  elapse  before 
its  completion.  One  has  an  opportunity,  in  opening  a 
new  farm,  for  making  a  grand  monument  to  his  skill  or 
a  discreditable  showing  of  his  lack  of  foresight  and 
ability.  In  assuming  the  management  of  an  old  farm, 
one  can  often  make  changes  which  will  materially 
increase  the  comforts,  facilitate  the  daily  work,  enlarge 
the  profits,  stimulate  the  pride  and  build  up  the  character 
of  the  owner  and  his  family. 

Organization  of  the  farm  business. — The  farm  may  be 
looked  upon  as  an  organized  structure.  The  windbreaks, 
public  roads,  outside  line  fences,  and  the  inside  road 
and  field  fences  make  up,  as  it  were,  a  skeleton  or  frame- 
work. The  buildings,  fields  and  yards  are  the  active 
organs  and  the  lanes  serve  as  arteries.  The  main  por- 
tions of  the  farm  are  the  farmstead*  containing,  so  to 
speak,  the  head  and  heart;  the  fields,  acting  as  stomach 
and  lungs;  and  the  lanes,  serving  as  circulatory  organs. 

In  the  middle  northwestern  states,  and  in  most  other 
parts  of  the  country,  whatever  may  be  the  present  lines 
of  farming  chosen,  the  foundation  plan  should  be  such 
that  stock  raising  may  easily  be  taken  up  at  once  or  in 
the  near  future,  possibly  by  future  owners.  This  means 
that  in  placing  the  windbreak,  the  dwelling  and  other 

*The  name  farmstead  is  here  used  to  mean  that  portion  of  the 
farm  separate  from  the  fields,  chosen  for  the  location  of  the  build- 
ings, yards,  garden,  orchard,  etc..  and  often  in  part  surrounded  with 
a  grove  left  when  clearing,  or  planted  to  serve  as  a  windbreak. 


PLANNING   THE   FARM  97 

improvements,  space  should  be  allotted  in  a  suitable  loca- 
tion for  buildings  and  yards  for  the  stock  and  for  build- 
ings for  the  storage  of  feedstuffs. 

The  general  plan  should  be  so  made  that  the  stock 
barns  and  yards  may  be  directly  connected  by  lanes  with 
the  various  fields  of  the  farm.  If  stock  farming  or 
mixed  farming  is  not  to  be  at  once  entered  upon,  the 
ultimate  plan  need  not  at  first  be  wholly  developed. 
Specialized  forms  of  farm  management  need  the  farm- 
stead and  fields  arranged  to  suit  specific  purposes.  Most 
farmers,  however,  are  devoted  to  general  farming,  with 
which  are  dovetailed  the  production  of  crops  to  be  sold 
for  money,  of  forage  and  grain  to  be  fed  to  stock,  of 
animals  which  are  reared  for  sale  or  for  use  on  the  farm 
for  work,  for  the  dairy,  or  for  meat  or  wool  products. 
Poultry  and  crops  raised  for  family  use,  as  garden  and 
fruit,  are  also  important  products  of  nearly  all  well- 
regulated  farms,  whether  highly  specialized  or  quite 
general  in  the  nature  of  crops  produced  for  the  market, 
and  space  in  suitable  locations  should  be  given  them. 

In  planning  a  farm  the  entire  business,  including  the 
lines  of  production,  should  be  decided  upon.  In  only 
rare  cases  is  it  well  to  limit  the  production  of  marketable 
products  to  a  single  line.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  un- 
wise to  attempt  too  many  lines.  Two  to  four  main  lines 
are  usually  more  profitable  than  one  or  many.  The  ad- 
vantage of  having  a  few  lines  rather  than  one  are  numer- 
ous. The  available  labor  can  be  more  economically 
used,  as  one  crop  will  need  attention  at  one  season  of 
the  year,  and  another  at  a  different  time.  Live  stock 
require  most  labor  in  the  winter,  when  other  farm  enter- 
prises demand  least,  and  thus  aid  in  economically  utiliz- 
ing labor  the  year  round. 

A  combination  of  specialties  may  be  selected  which 
will  thus  furnish  labor  profitable  employment  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year.     A  few  lines  can  be  so  mastered  that 


98  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

the  farmer  can  become  a  specialist  in  each,  thus  enabling 
him  to  pursue  those  lines  at  an  advantage  over  persons 
who  are  less  expert.  It  pays  the  farmer  to  equip  himself 
thoroughly  with  modern  appliances  and  materials  in  the 
few  enterprises  in  which  he  risks  his  success,  and  to 
make  a  thorough  study  along  those  lines.  There  is  not 
only  more  certainty  of  success,  but  more  satisfaction,  to 
the  man  who  tries  to  know  his  lines  of  work  more  thor- 
oughly than  anyone  else.  One  specialty  necessitates 
"  carrying  all  the  eggs  in  one  basket,"  and  should  prices 
be  low,  the  season  unfavorable,  or  should  other  mis- 
fortunes befall  this  one  industry,  the  loss  is  felt  most 
keenly. 

There  are  few  single  lines  of  farm  production  which 
may  be  so  managed  as  profitably  to  utilize  labor  steadily 
throughout  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  too  many  lines 
result  in  the  business  being  so  indefinite  and  poorly 
arranged,  that  none  of  the  numerous  lines  may  be 
studied  and  followed  up  and  by  years  of  accumulated 
experience  and  equipment  made  a  success  equal  to  the 
best.  The  management  of  labor  cannot  be  systematized, 
as  there  are  liable  to  be  too  many  things  to  be  done  at 
once.  Too  many  irons  in  the  fire  result  in  some  being 
burned,  and,  while  giving  a  few  saving  blows  at  those 
that  are  suffering,  the  most  important  projects  are  not 
pressed  forward  to  a  profitable  completion. 

The  business  plan  should  be  stable. — Changing  from 
one  line  of  farming  to  another,  with  temporary  changes 
in  prices  or  profits,  is  most  unwise.  Steadiness  of  pur- 
pose, determination  to  stand  by  the  ship,  is  a  quality 
as  necessary  to  success  in  farming  as  in  other  business 
affairs.  During  every  year  in  which  a  given  line  of  pro- 
duction is  pursued,  there  is  some  experience  gained,  and 
usually  the  farm  equipment  for  this  particular  enter- 
prise grows.  Much  is  lost  both  by  abandoning  the  prep- 
aration made  to  carry  on  the  old  line  and  in  gathering 


PLANNING   THE    FARM  99 

together  the  knowledge  and  the  materials  necessary  to 
inaugurate  the  new. 

If  one  has  a  few  principal  lines,  he  may  cater  some- 
what to  prices  in  choosing  the  relative  energy  and  time 
to  devote  each  year  to  the  respective  lines  of  production. 
Prices  depend  so  much  on  unforeseen  conditions  that,  at 
best,  something  must  be  left  to  chance.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  few  simple  rules  which  are  worthy  of  recognition. 
When  the  price  of  a  product  is  abnormally  low,  it  is  a 
far  better  time  to  get  ready  for  producing  more  of  it 
than  when  prices  are  high.  One  extreme  follows  another 
in  the  prices  of  staple  farm  products  which  can  easily 
be  produced.  Thus  high  prices  for  pork  usually  alter- 
nate every  several  years  with  low  prices.  High  prices 
for  horses,  in  like  manner,  are  sure  to  follow  low  prices. 
The  length  of  the  periods  of  change  require  a  longer 
time  with  horses  than  with  hogs,  because  horses  will  not 
reproduce  in  large  numbers  at  so  rapid  a  rate  as  hogs, 
and  each  animal  requires  several  times  as  long  to  reach 
maturity.  When  prices  are  very  high  is  usually  not  the 
best  time  to  purchase  foundation  stock  for  new  herds, 
because  high  prices  are  sure  to  fall.  Low  prices  are 
nearly  always  followed  by  higher  prices  in  agricultural 
products. 

By  keeping  posted  in  the  lines  of  production,  the 
farmer  can  sometimes  foresee  that  there  are  evidences  of 
a  coming  strong  demand  for  certain  products  and  a  slow 
demand  for  other  products.  One  acquainted  with  the 
wonderful  development  of  cattle  ranches  during  the 
decades  1870  to  1890  could  not  fail  to  see  that  the  supply 
of  beef  in  this  country  was  increasing  more  rapidly  than 
the  demand,  a  condition  which  always  results  in  falling 
prices.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  prices  of  beef  ad- 
vanced, rather  than  fell  off,  during  the  financial  panic,  fol- 
lowing 1893,  when  the  people  had  less  money  with  which 
to  purchase  meats,  could  be  taken  by  the  farmer,  at  the 


lOO  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

end  of  the  panic,  as  an  assurance  that  the  supply  was  no 
longer  increasing  more  rapidly  than  the  demand,  and 
that  the  supply  of  cheaply  raised  ranch  beef,  as  com- 
pared with  the  growing  demand,  had  reached  its  climax, 
and  that  beef  raising  would  be  more  remunerative. 
These  illustrations  are  given,  not  to  show  that  these 
industries  may  now  be  remunerative,  but  rather  to  illus- 
trate a  principle  and  to  show  the  advantage  of  studying 
in  a  broad  way  those  factors  which  modify  supply  and 
demand  and  thus  cause  irregular  fluctuations  in  prices. 
Some  farmers  who  have  an  abundance  of  the  product 
which  may  be  in  special  demand,  succeed  partly  because 
they  look  ahead  and  anticipate  high  prices. 

Enterprise  brings  success. — The  farmer  has  abundant 
opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise. 
If  all  his  neighbors  have  poor  hogs,  the  most  profitable 
line  of  production  he  can  enter  upon  may  be  the  pro- 
duction of  pure-bred  animals  to  sell  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. To  make  a  success  of  this,  he  must  carry  out  his 
business  in  a  somewhat  different  way  from  that  which 
might  succeed  in  simply  raising  fat  porkers  for  the  mar- 
ket. He  must  secure  superior  breeding  animals  and  rear 
their  young  in  the  most  improved  manner.  He  must 
create  a  market  for  his  pigs  by  educating  his  neighbors 
to  an  appreciation  of  better  stock.  Likewise,  a  farmer 
may  get  the  best  corn,  wheat  or  other  crop,  and,  by 
raising  fine  crops  of  good  quality,  work  up  a  reputation 
as  a  grower  of  pure-bred  seeds  and  thus  obtain  from  his 
neighbors  prices  for  seed  which  are  better  than  the  prices 
offered  at  the  elevator,  or  even  more  than  could  be 
realized  if  the  grain  were  fed  to  live  stock.  Other 
specialties  which  offer  opportunities  are  berry  raising, 
orchard  fruits,  or  even  some  less  common  crop  with 
which  the  local  market  is  not  supplied  by  other  farmers 
in  the  vicinity.  Often  the  distant  market  will  afford 
better  prices  than  the  home  market.     Especially  in  case 


PLANNING/ l^HE    7ARM-.^. 


lOI 


of  pure-bred  animals  and  pedigreed  seeds,  people  will 
pay  better  prices  for  something  secured  at  a  distance 
from  their  homes.  But  most  farmers  must  win  out  by 
doing  prdinary  farming  very  well.  The  great  staple 
crops  and  the  great  classes  of  live  stock  are  the  stay  of 
the  farming  business,  and  producing  them  is  a  remunera- 
tive business  if  well  conducted. 


e- 


J 


GARDEN 


Tmrr 


TEL 


ORCHARD 


m-zmnMim 


THE  FARMSTEAD 

Location. — After  taking  a  general  view  of  the  farm, 
the   location   of  the   central   feature   should   be   decided 

J ,       upon.    The  farm- 

f[       ~^  Jf  p    stead  must  be  so 

placed  as  to 
have  a  good 
site  and  be  in 
easy  communi- 
cation with  all 
other  parts  of 
the  farm.  See 
sites  of  farm- 
steads in  Figures 
41  to  43  F. 

Site  of  the 
farmstead. —  The 
farmstead  should 
be  proportionate 
in  size  to  the 
farm  and  to  the 
farm  business, 
and  it  may  be 
definite  in  its 
So  locating  the 
in  one  or  two 
the 


w* 


TREES 


Fig  37.  General  plan  for  a  farmstead,  with  road  on 
the  north;  with  windbreak,  orchard  and  gardens;  and  with 
buildings,  lanes  and  paddocks  or  small  fields  handily  ar- 
ranged beside  each  barn:  I,  house;  II,  horse  barn; 
III,  poultry  house;  IV.  cow  barn.  Tne  south  half  of  the 
small  field  beside  the  horse  barn  could  be  used  for  swine 
with  a  building  near  the  central  lane,  with  such  division 
Into  lots  as  may  be  required  for  the  horses  and  hogs. 


outline     on     at     least     two     sides. 

farmstead    that    it    may    be    enlarged 

directions    is    sometimes    an    advantage,    as    when 

farm   is   enlarged   by  the   purchase  of  adjoining  tracts. 


102 


FAR^   pEyEp.OPMENT 


.^^ 


GARDEN 


rfevr'tei-^  -yja-i— ^a- 


ORCHARD 


Ten  acres,  or  an  area  40  by  40  rods,  or  30  by  50 
rods,  makes  a  very  good-sized  farmstead  on  a  farm  of 
160  acres.  (See  Figure  37.)  This  allows  a  distance  of 
8  to  20  rods  between  the  house  and  the  barn,  with  ample 
room  for  the  garden,  orchard,  lawns  and  shelter  belt  on 
half  the  area. 
The  remainder 
can  be  utilized 
for  barns,  food 
storage  build- 
ings, machine 
sheds  and  yards 
for  animals.  The 
laying  out,  plat- 
ting and  staking 
out  locations  for 
buildings  can 
best  be  done  on 
the  ground,  and 
while  the  owner 
must  decide 
most  of  these 
questions,        h  e 


z  a,  z 


D^ 


\\r* 


BT 


1 fr 

Figure    38.     Farmstead    on    the     southeast    corner     of    the 

farm,     fronting    east     and    the    land       sloping    to    the    east. 

I,   Dwelling;  II.  hog  house;  III,   horse  barn;  IV,  cattle  barn; 

^U^^.IA  li.     V,    poultry    house;    VI,    grain    house.      By    means    of    branch 

SnOUm  consult    lanes  from  II.  FV  and  V,  with  cross  fences,  the  hogs,  cattle 

'4.U  4.U  A        ^^^^  poultry  can   be  supplied  with  small  fenced  fields  planted 

Wltn       OtnerS       to     to    permanent    pasture    or    used    for    growing    pasturage    and 

,      .       soilage  in  rotation. 

secure      their 

criticisms  of  his  plans  and  suggestions  of  improvements. 
After  the  plan  has  been  decided  upon,  the  necessary  meas- 
urements should  be  made  and  a  map  drawn  showing  the 
proposed  location  for  grove,  buildings  and  other  features 
of  the  farmstead. 

Windbreaks  and  shelter  belts. — The  location  of  a  grove 
for  a  windbreak,  and  for  a  background  to  the  picture  of 
home  life  within,  is  a  matter  worthy  of  careful  thought, 
especially  in  cold  or  windy  regions.  Laying  out  the  loca- 
tion for  a  tirnb^r  b^lt  to  form  two  or  rnore  sides  of  th^ 


PLANNING  THE   FARM 


103 


farmstead,  as  definitely  locates  the  size,  form  and  position 
of  this  center  of  the  operations  of  the  farm,  as  the  placing 
of  the  foundation  and  sills  of  a  barn  or  dwelling  decides 
upon  the  plan  of  the  building.  These  foundation  plans 
should  be  large  so  that  the  farmstead  may  contain  ample 
room  for  all  the  buildings,  yards  and  garden  plats  which 
may  be  needed  in  the  future.  If  there  is  more  land  thus 
inclosed  than  is  needed  in  the  start,  one  or  two  small  plats 
or  fields  can  be  utilized  for  special  crops.  Potatoes,  roots 
for  stock,  corn  or  other  crops  for  soilage,  or  pastures  for 
calves,  colts  or  hogs,  may  thus  be  raised  to  advantage 

near    the    build-    .  ; 

ings.  The  area 
within  the  wind- 
breaks should  be 
large  enough  so 
that  when  the 
live  stock  has  so 
increased  as  to 
necessitate  en- 
larging the  num- 
ber of  buildings 
and  paddocks, 
there  will  be 
adequate  room. 

Many  farms 
on  the  prairies 
are  not  sheltered 
by  windbreaks, 
though  ample 
time  has  elapsed  since  they  were  first  established.  The 
dreary  aspect,  the  frigid  experiences  of  caring  for  stock 
in  winter,  the  loss  of  profits  on  animals  from  the  lack  of 
protection  from  the  sweep  of  biting  winds,  the  barren- 
ness of  the  surroundings  of  the  home,  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered lightly.    The  man  or  woman  who  has  grown  up 


:i:;;:;e 

-  ■    "     " 

:;^;.:. 
i:--:!;!':; 

;;I:;>j;I;; 

•'!'';•'• 

DD 

Li] 

^^                              II 

0^ 

• 

[W] 

a: 
0 

rL_ 

Y 

I 

> 

TREES,             -   11 

Figure  39.     Farmstead  fronting  road  on  the  south.    I,  Horse 
barn;  II,   swine   barn;  III.   poultry  house;  IV,   cattle  barn. 


104 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


within  a  prairie  home  snugly  surrounded  by  a  grove 
planted  early  by  the  father,  can  best  appreciate  the  dif- 
ference between  that  and  the  unprotected  farmhouse. 
Considered  from  the  standpoint  of  cost  and  profit  in 
dollars  and  cents,  the  grove  pays.  If  to  this  is  added  the 
comforts,  the  pleasures,  the  greater  possibilities  of  hav- 

i  n  g  a  more 
beautiful  home 
life,  stronger 
attachment  of 
the  children  to 
the  home,  and 
better  op- 
portunities  for 
developing 
strong,  useful 
lives,  the 
profits  are  not 
easily  com- 
puted. 

In  the  middle 
northwest, 
where  the 
prevailing  win- 
ter winds  and 
cold  storms  come  from  the  north  and  west,  it  is  usually 
desirable  to  have  the  windbreak  on  these  two  sides,  with 
the  south  and  east  open  to  the  warm  sun,  as  shown  in 
Figures  37,  38,  39  and  40.  These  four  plans  are  designed 
to  show:  the  general  arrangement  as  to  the  approach 
from  the  public  highway,  whether  it  is  on  the  north, 
east,  west  or  south ;  the  relative  location  and  distance 
apart  of  buildings ;  and  the  general  plans  for  lanes  and 
paddocks,  also  the  location  of  the  orchard  and  the  gar- 
dens. Nearly  every  farm  ofifers  individual  problems  and 
only  general  suggestions  can  be  given  here.     In  some 


Figure  40.     Farmstead  fronting  road  on  the  west,     a,  house; 
b.  horse  barn;  c,  poultry  house;  d,  cow  barn;  e,  hog  barn. 


PLANNING   THE    FARM  IO5 

sections,  belts  or  clumps  of  trees  grouped  throughout  the 
farmstead  for  a  protection  from  hot,  southwest  winds 
are  also  desirable  and  they  add  beauty.  Trees  for  shade 
and  to  reduce  the  summer  temperature  of  the  home  often 
are  important,  and  foresight  in  planting  the  proper  kinds 
of  trees  in  the  best  places  is  wise.  Some  farms  have 
been  unfortunately  planned,  and  the  buildings  so  placed 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  locate  groves  and  clumps  of 
trees  where  they  are  most  needed.  Not  infrequently  the 
dwelling  or  the  barn  buildings,  or  both,  are  located  so 
close  to  a  public  road  on  the  west  or  north  that  there  is 
no  room  for  a  timber  belt.  A  similarly  fatal  mistake  is 
often  made  by  placing  the  buildings  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
that  slopes  to  the  north  or  west.  This  last  arrangement 
is  especially  undesirable  if  the  hillside  is  gravelly  or 
otherwise  unsuited  to  the  rapid  growth  of  trees  for  shel- 
ter, shade  and  ornament. 

Farmers  who  enter  timbered  lands  are  too  apt  to  cut 
away  all  trees  near  their  buildings.  The  necessity  for 
removing  trees  from  their  fields  seems  to  develop  a  de- 
sire for  destroying  trees.  Many  a  farmhouse  in  the 
timbered  regions  has  been  placed  on  a  hill,  the  trees 
have  been  cut  away  all  around,  and  no  protection  left  on 
the  north  and  west  sides,  thus  changing  a  cozy  nook 
into  a  blank  opening,  having  only  a  house  instead  of  a 
cozy  home.  Trees  may  yet  be  planted,  however,  and 
the  farm  made  homelike. 

It  is  often  an  advantage  to  have  the  farmstead  near  a 
public  road,  as  this  facilitates  communication  with  the 
outer  world.  The  wife  likes  to  have  a  glimpse  of  passers- 
by,  and  the  neighborly  call  of  a  friend  who  can  drop  in 
is  pleasant  to  all  members  of  the  family.  The  free  de- 
livery of  mail  and  the  public  conveyance  of  children  to 
the  consolidated  rural  school,  which  should  be  the  rule  in 
every  farm  community,  also  are  less  expensive  and  more 
satisfactory  when  the  house  is  not  too  far  from  the  high- 


io6 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


way.  In  some  cases  old  farmsteads  should  be  aban- 
doned and  new  ones  developed  in  locations  more  suitable 
as  to  topography  and  soil,  and  in  easier  reach  of  schools, 
churches,  towns  and  neighbors. 

Other  timber  belts  on  parts  of  the  farm  not  adjacent 
to  the  buildings  are  often  desirable  on  prairie  farms,  and 


F 

D 

E 

If 

C 

1 

G 

B 

H           L- 

I^Vi^iP<r>9<hPoQ 

A 

1  I 
1° 

D 

Cb 

i 


Figure  41.  Plan  of  a  160-acre  farm  with  six  twenty-acre  fields  and 
three  ten-acre  fields,  while  ten  acres  are  devoted  to  the  farmstead.  The 
lane  LL,  with  its  branch  X,  connects  the  public  highway,  the  barn  build- 
ings, the  paddocks,  and  all  the  fields  with  each  other.  The  plan  is  so 
made  that  all  the  fields  may  eventually  be  fenced  and  iised  under  two 
systems  of  crop  rotation  as  shown  more  in  detail  in  Figure  42;  on  the  six 
larger  fields,  A  to  E,  is  a  six-year  rotation;  on  the  three  smaller  fields,  G, 
H,  I,  is  a  three-year  rotation. 

efforts  should  be  made  to  preserve  carefully  some  of  the 
best  areas  of  woods  on  timbered  farms;  and  to  manage 
properly  under  a  good  plan  of  forest  cropping  the  growth 
of  timber  on  sandy,  rough  or  stony  lands,  where  lumber, 
fuel,  paper,  pulp  or  other  forest  crop,  may  pay  better 
than  ordinary  grain  crops,  or  pastures,  or  hay. 


PLANNING  THE   FARM 


107 


Roads   and   lanes. — These   are    mentioned   in   connec- 


1909  Grasi 

1910  Grass 

1911  Grass 

1912  Grain 

1913  Corn 
19H  Wheal 


1915  Grass 

1916  Grass 

1917  Grass 

1918  Grain 

1919  Corn 

1920  Wheat 


1909 
1910 
1911 
i  L  1912 
^  1913 
1914 


1912  Grass 

1913  Grain 
y  1914  Corn 


1915  Wheal 

1916  Grass 

1917  Grass 

1918  Grass 

1919  Grain 

1920  Corn 


1909 
1910 
,  ,  1911 
^  1912 
1913 
1914 


I  1909  Grain  \ 
J,  1910  Clover  i 
▼  1911  r.ii  r™..  ^ 


tion  with  the  plan  of  the  farmstead  and  th 
public  road,  whether  it  forms  a  boundary  of 
or  is  reached  by  a  road  or  lane  across  the 
fields,  should  be 
connected  with 
the  dwelling,  the 
barns,  the  lanes 
among  the  barn- 
yards, and  roads 
reaching  all  the 
fields.  Much 
time  may  be 
saved  by  a  con- 
venient arrange- 
ment of  lanes 
and  gates  among 
the  buildings 
and  yards.  A 
day,  or  even  a 
month,  of  careful 
[anning  may 
save  years  of 
needless  work 
and  worry,  and 
will  do  much 
toward  provid- 
ing for  a  perma- 


e  fields.  The 
the  farmstead 
farm  between 


1909  Gi 

1910  Clover 

1911  Crfl.  Croj, 

1912  Grain/ 

1913  Clov^ 

/lOA 


"fl905 


1909  Odt.  Crop 

1910  Gram 

1911  Clover 

1912  Cult.  Crop 

1913  Grain 


1909  Clover 

1910  C.I1.  Crop 

1911  Grain 

1912  Clover 

1913  Cult.  Crop 


Grass 

Corn 

Wheal 
Grass 


1915  Grass 

1916  Grass 

1917  Grain 

1918  Corn 

1919  Wheal 

1920  Grass 


Grass 

Corn 

Wheat 
Grass 
Grass 


1915  Grass 

1916  Grain 

1917  Corn 

1918  Wheal 

1919  Grass 

1920  Grass 

20a 


1909  Gram 

1910  Corn 

1911  Wheal 

1912  Grass 

1913  Grass 

1914  Grass 


1915  Grain 

1916  Corn 

1917  Wheal 

1918  Grass 

1919  Grass 

1920  Grass 


A  1909  Corn 

1910  Wheal 

1911  Grass 

1912  Grass 

1913  Grass 

1914  Gram 


1915  Corn 

1916  Wheat 

1917  Grass 

1918  Grass 

1919  Grass 

1920  Gram 


Figure    42.     Giving   method    of    writing,    in    a    simple    map 
of    the    farm,    a    rotation    scheme    showing    tlie    crops    to    be 
grown    in    each    fleld   for   a   long   series   of  years,    in   fact,    a 
■r^l^.^     i     ^         ,^  ^  permanent    projection    of    a    cropping    plan    for    systematic 

piannmg  may  rotation  in  each  fleld  of  each  rotation  series.  The  arrow 
shows  the  order  of  succession  in  which  the  six-year  rotation 
is  begun  with  corn  in  the  six  twenty-acre  fields  and  the  three- 
yeai'  rotation  is  begun  with  cultivated  crops  in  the  three 
ten-acre  fields.  A  rotation  suitable  to  the  six  twenty-acre 
fields  in  the  middle  northwest  is  as  follows:  Ist  year,  corn; 
2d  year,  wheat;  3d  year,  grass;  4th  year,  grass;  5th  year, 
grass  (or  grain);  6th  year,  grain;  then,  beginning  again  with 
corn,  repeat.  By  starting  out  with  one  fleld,  as  A,  with 
corn  in  1909;  field  B  in  corn  in  1910;  field  C  in  corn  in 
1911,  etc,  each  fleld  takes  its  regular  place  in  the  rotation 
course,  giving  annually  20  acres  to  corn,  20  to  wheat,  60 
to  grass  and  20  to  other  small  grains.  A  rotation  suited  to 
the  three  ten-acre  plats  is  as  follows:  1st  year,  cultivated 
,1         .,,  .  crops;    2d   year,    grain;    3d   year,    clover.     To    show   that   the 

nent  nealtny  m-  order  of  numbering  or  the  order  in  which  the  fields  occur 
need  not  be  followed  in  any  regular  way  in  deciding  which 
fleld  shall  first  be  planted  to  a  given  crop  chosen  to  begin 
the  rotation,  the  three-year  rotation  is  placed  on  fields 
G,  H  and  I  in  an  older  which  does  not  seem  regular  on 
paper,  but  might  be  the  most  natural  order  in  which  to 
bring  the  fields  from  an  old  system  of  cropping  to  the 
new  rotation  scheme.  Tlie  arrow  here  also  shows  the  cours« 
of  the  rotation. 


terest     in     the 
farm  work. 

Paddocks  and 
barnyards. — The 
central  feature  of  barnyards  and  paddocks  should  be  a 
lane  communicating  at  one  end,  by  means  of  gates,  with 
the  stock  doors  of  the  barns,  with  paddocks,  yards  and 


io8 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


side  lanes,  and,  at  the  outer  end,  with  the  lanes  leading  to 
the  pastures  and  other  fenced  fields  of  the  farm.  Though 
this  artery  be  very  simple  and  inexpensive,  yet  it  will  save 
many  steps  and  make  gentle  treatment  of  the  stock  pos- 
sible. Substantial  fences  may  now  be  made  so  cheaply  of 
smooth  woven  wire  that  no  stock  farm  should  lack  a  handy 

arrangement  of 
paddocks  with 
lanes  and  gates. 
Lawn,  garden 
and  orchard. — 
The  lawn,  the 
garden  and  the 
orchard  should 
each  be  given 
room  in  the  orig- 
inal plan  of  the 
farmstead.  The 
orchard  should 
be  so  placed  that 
the  air  will  not 
-^— ..    remain     quiet 

Figure   43A.      Shows  a   map   on   which   the   crops   grown   on  amOUfif    the    trCCS 
each  field  for  a  given  year   (1911)   are  recorded,  together  with  mi         i        • 

a  record  of  the  yield  of  each  crop,  etc.  It  will  be  observed  but  will  drain 
that  these  are  the  crops   prescribed  for  the  year   1911   in  the 

rotations  projected  in  Figure  42.  OUt    thuS  tendinfif 

to  reduce  injury  from  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases  and 
to  make  the  trees  less  subject  to  injury  from  frost.  A 
northeast  slope,  with  trees  on  the  north  but  none  on  the 
east,  often  best  combines  shelter  from  winter  winds  with 
air  drainage.  In  some  cases  it  seems  best  not  to  surround 
the  plat  chosen  for  an  orchard  with  the  grove,  or  else  to 
place  the  orchard  on  the  north  or  east  side  of  the  grove. 
Buildings  for  specialties. — Buildings  for  propagating 
plants,  for  manufacturing  dairy  products,  for  making 
sugar,  for  drying  fruit,  for  meats  or  other  special 
purposes,    should    be    so   placed    as    to    be    convenient. 


F 

£o  C&ttfe  Aor  63  c/AyA 

D     0&t$-iO£-*bu    @  31* 

Strom- 's  r 

iCom-KtodAys,  oreo  crays  per  A. 

Bar/ey- 707  bu   &  4-9* 
StrSiiu.-  lo.s  T 

E 

P&iture. 
20  CAtt/e  for  SO  days 
3  /lorjes  -   //e 
/ss^c/ayi  or  Tr-7  ofays  per  A, 

C 

Cor.  .—  iiAO  bu 
5tovec-  £9  r. 

Waeat 
jiBTbu  »  eo* 
■Sfraui  /a  T 

S    roader 
sA   -zrT 

Oat&Pe&H&y 
RApe  for  Hogs. 

B 

^aobu  no  in  ®  S9* 

Str&ut-M3S    T 

A 

Grass. 
£7.5  T  ifi  June. 
/3.S-  T      Sept 

/a  T  in  June 
CAtf  p&hture 

»ov  Pasture 

.-.' 

PLANNING   THE   FARM 


109 


Cellars  and  caves  should  be  handily  arranged  that  they 
may  be  easily  entered  in  winter.  Cellars  under  living 
houses  are  far  too  common,  as  they  are  not  easily  kept 
wholesome,  and  sometimes  endanger  the  health  of  the 
family. 

The  residence. — The  buildings  should  not  be  too  near 
a  public  highway.  Five  to  fifteen  rods  from  the  road 
is  a  good  distance  to  place  the  dwelling  on  the  family 
farm,  while  the  barns  should  be  in  convenient  com- 
munication with  the  house,  as  well  as  properly  located 
for  protection  from  cold  winds  and  for  drainage.  The 
residence  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  easily  reached 
from  all  other  buildings  and  yet  afford  a  pretty  lawn  and 
a      commanding 


view  of 
farmstead, 
should  be 
stantially 


the 
It 
sub- 
built, 


with  attractive 
exterior.  The 
general  archi- 
tectural features 
should  be  made 
comely  by  their 
general  propor- 
tions rather  than 
by  means  of 
fancy  scroll 
work,  or  other 
designs  which 
will  not  long 
endure  or  may  not  be  cheaply  kept  in  repair.  While  the 
permanent  business  of  the  farm  may  not  warrant  a  large 
or  expensive  house,  whatever  is  built  should  be  as  sub- 
stantial and  enduring  as  can  be  afforded.  The  buildings 
are  like  the  well-cared-for  soil,  or  a  well-made  road,  a 


Figure  43B.  Olson  Farm  (one  hundred  and  forty  acres) 
before  replanning. 

NOTE.  The  land  inclosed  by  fences  overflows,  and  can 
best  be  use<J  as  permanent  pasture.  The  remainder  of  the 
land  is  all  rich,  gently  rolling,  and  suitable  for  corn, 
grass   and   grain   crops. 


no 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


'9oe  • 

/t09  ■ 

tSIO   -  SMJISS 

/gi2  -  co^H 

4913  -  t^fff^ 

/9/*  -  i/UiS 

'S/S    -  6M»S 


i9oe  '  cofiv 
/909  -  jy/'s/ir 

I9IO  -  CflASS 

t9ll  -  6^/>SS 

49/2  -  6/r^/V 

/9/3  -  CO/>M 


permanent  portion  of  the  capital  stock.  The  outbuild- 
ings, such  as  woodshed,  ice  house,  etc.,  may  often  be 
utilized  by  building  them  near  together,  to  inclose  or 
shelter  a  court  or  yard  in  which  the  wood  cutting  and 
many  other  outdoor  duties  may  be  performed  in  com- 
fort, even  on  cold  days. 

The  barn  buildings. — The  buildings  for  animals  and 
feedstufifs  should  not  be  too  near  the  residence,  because 

of  the  odors, 
and  the  litter 
which  is 
usually  scat- 
tered about  at 
harvest  time. 
Neither  should 
the  distance  be 
too  great,  es- 
pecially in  cold, 
windy  countries, 
where  the 
numerous  daily 
trips  between 
the  house  and 
barns  should 
not  be  unneces- 
sarily long. 
There  are  many 
arguments  for 
having  one  large  barn  and  centering  there  the  live  stock 
and  their  foods.  In  developing  a  farm,  however,  the 
means  with  which  to  erect  buildings  are  not  earned  at 
a  bound,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  necessary  to  erect  one  build- 
ing at  a  time.  It  is  not  a  bad  plan,  as  it  can  be  afforded, 
to  build  well  a  separate  building  for  each  class  of  live 
stock.  The  barns,  machinery  sheds,  and  other  sheds  and 
granaries    may    often    be    used    to    inclose    yards,    in 


/908  -  e^A//t 
t909  -  COfH 

4910  -  mne/i7 

4911  -  VmS 
4911  -  a»*ss 

49/3    -    e/TAIM 
49/4    -  CO/1/4 

/9/S  -  nr/tCAr 


/90a  -  6^/ISS 

.4909  -  6/lAIN 

4910    -  con/4 

49//  -  i/vne/iT 

49/2    -  CAJii 

49/3    -  CP4SS 

/9l4   -  CAIN 

49/S.   -  CO/r/4 


IfSSS* 


Ji^ 


Figure  43C.     Olson  Farm.     Reorganized  plan. 

NOTE.  Five-year  rotation  on  five  twenty-acre  fields:  First 
year,  wheat;  second  year,  grass;  third  year,  grass;  fourth 
year,  grain;  fifth  year,  corn. 

Four-year  rotation  on  four  fields  of  five  and  six  acres  each: 
First  year,  corn;  second  year,  wlieat;  third  year,  clover: 
fourth  year,  plots  of  annual  pasturage  and  soiling  crops,  to 
be  used  with  movable  fences  for  separately  fencing  each  por- 
tion as  ready  for  pasturing. 


PLANNING   THE   FARM 


III 


which  the  stock  may  be  comfortable  when  out  of  doors 
in  winter. 

The  fields. — A  complete  inspection  of  the  farm  is 
necessary,  in  selecting  one  to  purchase,  and  it  should 
be  even  more  complete  when  deciding  on  the 
general  plan  for  its  development.  Lands  which  can- 
not be  used  in  arable  fields  in  the  general  scheme 
of  the  rotation  must  be  set  aside  for  meadows, 
permanent  pastures  or  wood  lots.  In  considering 
these  in  connection  with  the  several  fields  into 
which  the  arable  portion  should  be  divided  for  the  pur- 
pose of  decid- 
ing upon  a  sys- 
tem of  rotating 
the  ,crops,  each 
should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  it 
may  be  reached 
through  suit- 
able roads  and 
lanes.  (See 
Figure  41.)  The 
fields  which  are 
to  be  alter- 
nately plowed 
and  in  tame 
grasses  should 
be  three  or 
more  in  number,  so  as  to  make  practicable  a  system  of 
change  or  rotation  which  will  be  at  once  profitable  in  the 
yields  of  crops,  and  will  aid  in  keeping  up  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  The  plan  of  the  fields  and  lanes  should  also  be 
platted  on  paper.  This  is  important,  not  only  to  preserve 
the  plan,  but  to  induce  one  to  keep  a  record  of  the  fields. 

Provide  for  systematic  rotation. — Every  farm  business 
should  be  planned  out  years  ahead  and  the  plan  should 


Figure  43D.     Harlan  Farm.     One-hundred-and-sixty-acre  farm 
before  replanning.     The  wet  area  is  to  be  tile  drained. 


112 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


/907 

i9oa  , 

1909  -  CMIM 
tml9lO  -  COm-t-s 

1911 -^^N   \ 
i     19/a- GRASS      ■ 

t9/3-CP*SS 

19/4 -GRASS 
I  /9IS-6MIH 
\     19/6  -  CORN 


\ 


\  1907-  (fiRA/V) 
I  /90a-  CRASS 
i  I909- GRASS 
•    1910 -GRAIN 

<*/9//      

t9/2  -  GRAM 
*9/3  -  GRASS 
1914  •  GRASS 
191$  -  GRASS 
1316  -  GRAIN 


^^ 


1907-  GRAIN 
I90S- GRASS 

1909 -cgm*-^ 


I 


I907-C0R»—L 
1903-GRAIM 
1909 -GRASS 
1910 -CORH 
1911  -tRSfH  \\ 
I9IZ- GRASS  ;k! 
1913  -  CORV  m 
79/4 -GRAM  ■« 
I9IS- GRASS  !« 
I9I(,  -  CORN    tou 


-(SRASS 


\tti9oe- 

1909 

1910  -  BRASS 

1911  -  CORR 
I9li  -  ^fiAIM 
1913  -  MASS 
I9t*  -  CORfl 
ISIS  -  SrSTh 

H      1916  •  CRASS     10/^ 


TSOB  -  GRASS 
7909  -  GTHtSS 
79/0  -  GRASS 
7977  -  GRAIN 
f*797Z-  CORN 
7913  -  6RA7N 
79/4  -  CRASS 
79/S  -  GRASS 
79/6  -  GRASS 

2^07-  JdM- 

\V/908  -  ^Aiit 
\\  7909 -GRASS 
S    1910  -  6RASS 


Kt.t. 


be  recorded.  There  should  be  adopted  a  scheme  cff 
rotating  the  crops,  the  general  features  of  which  should 
be  adhered  to,  with  modifications  in  the  less  important 

matters     as 
7907-UA/7h  '  '  •■  '  r  ' '  '  /V- '^^V  '  «  " «  '  I     season,  market, 

7908-^N,  79M-  GRASS  t  -      , 

labor  and  other 
farm  conditions 
may  require. 

The  central 
feature  of  the 
field  plan  should 
be  a  scheme  of 
rotation  of 
crops.  Most 
farms  should 
be  divided  into 
two  portions, 
and  each  por- 
tion divided  into 
a  number  of 
fields  of  nearly 
equal  size. 
Some  farms 
should  have  only  one  set  of  fields,  and  some  should  be 
divided  into  more  than  two  parts,  with  each  part  divided 
up  into  a  series  of  fields  adapted  to  a  given  scheme  of  crop 
rotation.  Thus  two  fields  accommodate  a  two-year 
rotation,  three  fields  a  three-year  rotation,  four  fields  a 
four-year  rotation,  etc.  Thus  about  the  same  acreage 
of  each  class  of  crops  is  provided  each  year ;  also  all  the 
advantages  of  crop  rotation  to  keep  the  soil  productive ; 
and  farming  becomes  an  orderly  business  in  which 
records  can  be  kept  and  where  profits  and  losses  on 
each  enterprise  can  be  more  definitely  known.  That  a 
systematic  rotation  of  crops  may  and  should  be  planned 
and  successfully   inaugurated   has   been   amply   demon- 


-\  r — -~^  ' ' 

Figure  43E.  Harlan  Farm.  A  six-year  rotation  projected  on 
six  twenty-acre  fields,  and  a  tliree-year  rotation  on  tliree  ten-acre 
fields.  The  arrows  following  corn  from  1907,  on  Field  C,  on  tlie 
successive  fields  to  1912  on  Field  D,  sliows  the  arrangement  of 
succession  of  the  fields  in  the  six-year  rotation. 


PLANNING   THE    FARM 


113 


strated.  A  few  illustrations  of  systematically  arranged 
plans  for  new  farms  and  for  the  rearrangement  of  old 
farms  are  here  given.  Those  who  have  become 
expert  in  this  kind  of  rural  engineering  in  a  given  locality 
have  no  serious  trouble  in  using  the  farmer's  own  knowl- 
edge of  his  soils  and  of  the  products  he  wishes  to  make, 
in  rearranging  and  mapping  any  farm  so  that  the  owner 
can  conduct  it  under  systematic  crop  rotations.  This 
cannot  be  done  at  arm's  length,  as  by  editors  in  their 
offices,  but  must  be  done  on  "  the  ground,"  with  the  plan 
of  the  farm,  a  knowledge  of  the  farm  and  the  farm  busi- 
ness in  all  its  details,  in  mind.  Even  then,  the  final 
decisions   relat- 


ing       to 

the 

number 

of 

fields      in 

the 

Cam  •  I2oo6u.930* 
Sforfr      Z3  T  tr^/'A 

Hr/ae  per  Acre      4/9.72 

Cosf-perAcrK  0.19 

Met  MewM  oer  Acre  fi/033 


0  360.OO 
_3±S0 
439^.SO 


390iu  a  31* 
^  /^S-/FrrA 


ffff/ffroim  fier^.  4 


As.x> 

IOA. 


//jy  .  3S7:  @  46/m.  a  2Z7.SO 

*  270.7Q 

Valae  perA       4/3  S3 

Cott      .     .  4^*7 

MetlnccmtjierA       4  S.06 

C ?0/lc 


fhsfumfe 
IZCows.  t30</aft  ^S*  4  73.00 

/SymyOMk,  r9oaart«t3'  OS. So 


MeflommeptrA.   4  (>.Z* 


cropping 
scheme ;  the 
sequence  of 
crops ;  specific 
plans,  as  for 
catch  crops ; 
the  place  for 
fences;  all 
must  be  work- 
ed out  by  the 
farmer,  and 

much  of  the 
drawing  must 
be  done  by  him  or  under  his  immediate  supervision. 
Often  he  cannot,  and  more  often  he  will  not,  follow  a 
ready-made  plan  or  even  a  plan  which  does  not  compre- 
hend his  own  best  thought.  The  work  of  rearranging 
fence  lines,  placing  lanes,  and  deciding  upon  the  length 
of  rotations  and  the  crops  to  be  included  in  each  series 
of  fields,  requires  some  skill.     A  few  of  the  general  prin- 


f/ay    /it.Cut/ing3Sr.e*7   4  Zi^oo 

j»    ga.    .    /ar.  jfi.       7/  so 


Va/ue  per  Ave     4  /■*  77 

CosrptrAm  S./e . 

Akf  fncome /XT  Acrt   t  S.6S 


tVAra/--  -Kotu  @i7S*      43/S.oo 

S/rau  .  /irtollZ  32 00. 

*  3f7oo 

fa/utfierA    4'73S 

Cur     .  7/<. 

fH/ncome/»rA     41O.ZI 


Figure    43F.     Harlan    Farm.     Annual    ledger    map    showing 
records  of  crops  for   1910. 


114  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

ciples  and  facts  concerning  the  rotation  of  crops  may 
properly  be  stated  here.  (See  Figures  41  and  43.)  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  following  statements  apply 
somewhat  locally  to  the  farm  conditions  of  the  middle 
Northwest. 

The  average  yearly  value  of  the  series  of  crops  in  rota- 
tion must  considerably  exceed  the  average  cost  of  pro- 
duction, that  there  may  be  a  large  net  annual  profit  per 
acre  and  per  worker. 

Each  crop  chosen  must  do  its  share  toward  producing 
the  average  net  profit  by  its  direct  net  profit,  taking  into 
account  the  reduction  of  the  productivity  of  the  soil,  or 
its  improvement  of  the  soil  for  succeeding  crops. 

Soil-reducing  crops  include  most  of  the  grains  and  cul- 
tivated crops.  Soil-improving  crops  include  most  of  the 
grasses,  clovers  and  such  other  leguminous  crops  as 
peas,  beans  and  lupins. 

Some  crops  reduce  the  productivity  of  the  soil  for  the 
same  and  certain  other  crops,  while  some  crops  increase 
the  productivity  of  the  soil  for  certain  crops.  Thus 
wheat,  oats  and  barley  reduce  the  productivity  of  the  soil 
for  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  Corn,  on  the  other  hand, 
leaves  the  soil  in  peculiarly  favorable  condition  for  these 
small  grains,  and  for  grasses  and  clovers  seeded  with 
them.  Clovers,  and  the  legumes  generally,  leave  the  soil 
peculiarly  improved  for  nearly  all  crops. 

Crops  which  reduce  the  productivity  of  the  soil  may 
do  so  in  various  ways,  as,  by  allowing  to  multiply  those 
kinds  of  weeds  which  are  peculiarly  harmful  to  the 
succeeding  crops;  by  introducing  plant  diseases;  pos- 
sibly by  introducing  substances  poisonous  to  the  soil; 
by  leaving  the  soil  in  poor  mechanical  condition ;  and  by 
leaving  it  lean  of  certain  compounds  needed  for  plant  food. 

Crops  which  increase  the  productivity  of  the  soil  may 
accomplish  this  in  numerous  ways,  as  by  adding  organic 
matter  which  support  bacterial  and  other  activities;  b^r 


PLANNING  THE   FARM  1 15 

supporting  bacteria  which  bring  into  the  soil  atmospheric 
nitrogen ;  by  providing  a  good  seed  bed ;  by  opening  up 
impervious  subsoils  by  the  roots;  by  improving  the 
mechanical  conditions  of  the  furrow-slice  so  that  it  may 
be  put  into  better  tilth;  and  by  increasing  the  farm 
supply  of  manure. 

As  a  general  rule  cultivated  crops  prepare  the  im- 
mediate conditions  of  the  land  for  the  grains ;  grains  for 
the  grasses,  especially  where  the  grasses  are  grown  the 
first  year  among  grain  crops ;  and  the  grasses,  in  turn, 
prepare  the  land  for  cultivated  crops,  as  in  the  following 
rotation:  First  year,  corn;  second  year,  wheat;  third 
year,  clover;   and  repeat  indefinitely. 

All  the  crops  in  the  rotation  should  be  in  practical 
sequence,  as:  First  year,  corn;  second  year,  wheat; 
third,  fourth  and  fifth  years,  timothy  and  clover  for 
hay  and  pasturage;  sixth  year,  grain.  Here  the  corn 
prepares  the  land  for  the  wheat,  and  also  provides  a  solid 
furrow-slice  with  mellow  seed  bed,  suited  to  insure  a 
catch  of  timothy  and  clover  seeded  with  the  spring 
wheat;  the  wheat  gives  a  profitable  crop,  while  the 
clover  and  timothy  plants  have  a  year  in  which  to 
start  among  the  wheat  so  as  to  yield  well  the  third 
year;  the  grass  sod  provides  splendid  conditions  for 
the  oats,  barley,  flax  or  other  grain  grown  in  the 
sixth  year;  and  after  receiving  part  of  the  year's 
product  of  stable  manure,  the  grain  stubble,  plowed 
in  either  fall  or  spring,  puts  the  soil  in  splendid  condition 
for  the  crop  of  corn,  with  which  the  rotation  is  again 
inaugurated. 

This  rotation  scheme  includes  crops  each  of  which 
gives  a  large  average  net  profit;  requires  the  expense 
of  plowing  each  field  only  twice  in  six  years,  once  for 
the  corn  and  once  for  grain ;  keeps  in  check  weeds  and 
plant  diseases;  maintains  a  good  percentage  of  organic 
matter  in  the  soil;  provides  for  a  high  annual  rate  pf 


Il6  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

plant  food  production  from  the  soil  and  from  the  air; 
maintains  the  soil  in  good  condition  mechanically; 
leaves  the  land  more  productive  at  the  end  of  each  six- 
year  rotation  period;  keeps  down  the  requirements  for 
present  day  high-priced  labor;  and,  for  the  region  men- 
tioned above,  it  is  the  basis  of  a  system  of  crop  and  live 
vStock  production  which  yields  a  high  annual  net  income 
per  acre  and  per  worker. 

Most  farms  are  rather  awkwardly  organized,  many  of 
them  not  showing  any  attempt  at  systematic  planning. 
It  is  hoped  that  investigations,  in  crop  rotations,  in  the 
cost  of  making  farm  products,  in  the  methods  used  by  the 
most  successful  farmers,  and  other  like  subjects,  will  ere 
long  give  a  basis  for  a  literature  on  farm  organization 
and  farm  management  in  each  state. 

When  this  has  been  done  the  farmer,  often  with  the 
help  of  his  son  and  the  teacher  in  the  consolidated 
rural  school,  can  place  on  paper  a  systematically  organ- 
ized plan  to  be  followed  in  its  main  features.  Keeping 
an  annual  ledger  map  by  annually  putting  yields,  cost 
and  other  facts  in  each  field  on  the  map,  will  be  a  pleas- 
ant task  for  the  farmer.  Duplicate  copies  of  these  maps 
on  file  in  the  consolidated  rural  school,  in  the  agricul- 
tural high  school,  and  in  the  agricultural  newspaper,  will 
be  the  bases  of  very  lively  discussion  of  farm  manage- 
ment. This  subject  will  then  have  changed  from  an  in- 
definite, if  not  uninteresting,  topic  to  a  fascinating  and 
most  vital  educational  and  economic  subject. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SUBDUING    THE    LAND 

In  subduing  the  land  we  meet  a  variety  of  problems. 
The  labor,  time  and  expense  of  subduing  the  native 
grass  sod  on  a  field  of  undulating  prairie  land  is  not 
more  than  double  the  cost  of  plowing  under  the  stubble 
of  one  crop,  preparatory  to  planting  another.  Where 
the  land  is  wet  and  part  or  all  the  field  must  be  drained, 
there  is  a  material  addition  to  the  cost;  and  often  much 
time  must  elapse  before  the  soil  is  drained  and  ready 
to  receive  the  seeds  of  a  cultivated  crop  and  bring  in 
returns  for  capital  invested  in  the  wet  acres.  Where 
brush,  trees,  stones  or  even  coarse  peat  are  present, 
there  is  an  added  outlay  of  labor  required,  and  the  date 
when  profits  may  be  realized  on  the  land  is  still  further 
delayed. 

A  large  portion  of  our  wooded  lands  has  rich  soils 
free  of  stones,  and  is  well  adapted  to  use  as  arable  lands 
in  rotative  cropping.  Much  of  the  land  covered  with 
native  trees,  however,  is  rough,  stony,  wet  or  otherwise 
not  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  plow,  and  would  best  be 
used  for  permanent  grass  land  or  for  the  continued 
growth  of  forest  crops. 

Brushing  the  land  is  usually  the  first  operation  in 
forest-covered  land,  that  there  may  be  little  to  impede 
the  operations  of  grubbing,  and  that  the  piled  brush 
may  be  dry  and  useful  in  aiding  to  burn  the  stumps. 
In  new  districts,  remote  from  large  centers  of  popu- 
lation, much  good  wood,  and  even  straight  timber  sticks, 
must  be  sacrificed  to  the  flames  because  of  the  too  great 
expense  of  transporting  them  to  market. 


ii8 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


The  brush  scythe,  a  light  ax,  a  hand  brush  hook,  and 
simple  devices  for  using  horses  for  raking  the  brush 
together  into  piles,  are  the  implements  chiefly  u^ed  in 


Figure  44.  A,  canthook;  B,  spade:  C,  poll  ax;  D,  double-edged  ax; 
E.  shovel;  F,  crowbar;  G,  mattock;  H,  brush  hook;  I.  piQi;;  J,  auger; 
K,   brush  scythe;  L,  cross-cut  saw. 


SUBDUING  THE  LAND  IIQ 

clearing  the  land  of  shrubs  and  of  brush  left  from  fallen 
trees.  In  this,  as  in  other  operations  of  clearing,  there  is 
use  for  skill  and  judgment  as  well  as  for  an  abundance 
of  brawn.  For  the  heavy  work  of  drawing  together  logs, 
a  team,  preferably  one  experienced  in  logging,  and  an 
equipment  of  chains,  canthooks,  etc.,  are  very  necessary ; 
while  human  muscle,  coupled  with   skill  and  tact,  are 


Figure  45.    A  useful  form  of  windlass  or  capstan  stump  puller. 

also  required  for  rapid  and  thoroughgoing  work.  It  is 
necessary  to  precede  the  skidding  of  logs  with  some  ax 
work,  in  case  of  recently  felled  trees  or  tops  from  which 
the  branches  have  not  yet  rotted;  and  following  the 
skidding,  the  ax  and  brush  scythe  are  used  to  remove  the 
shrubs  and  trees  which  are  too  small  to  require  grubbing. 
Where  not  too  remote,  and  where  herding  or  fencing 
can  be  arranged,  sheep  and  goats  may  sometimes  be 
employed  in  brushing  the  lands,  provided  it  is  not  im- 
portant to  get  the  land  immediately  tinder  the  plow. 


120 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


For  arable  fields  all  trees  and  stones  should  be  re- 
moved. In  some  cases  the  difBculty  of  removing  stones 
and  stumps  will  not  permit  the  immediate  completion  of 
the  work.  Time  allows  the  stumps  to  decay  and  our 
fungous  bacterial  friends  may  be  allowed  to  gradually 
decompose  the  roots  until  the  stumps  may  more  readily 
be  removed.  Time  also  gives  opportunity  for  accumulat- 
ing the  means  and  forces  necessary  to  remove  obstacles 


Figure  46.     Showing  use  of  windlass  and  "stump  hook"  or  "root  plow." 

which  could  not  be  removed  with  the  limited  resources 
at  first  available.  Where  the  stones  or  stumps  are  not 
too  thick  the  cultivation  may,  in  some  cases,  at  least 
temporarily,  be  carried  on  among  them.  The  stump 
may  be  removed  easier  by  attacking  the  roots  while  the 
tree  is  standing,  rather  than  after  it  has  been  cut  down. 
Any  mechanical  device  for  pulling  the  stump  aflfords 
greater  advantage  if  attached  some  distance  up  the  body 
of  the  tree.  Usually,  however,  the  lumbermen  precede 
the  settler  and  only  stumps  remain  to  be  removed. 

Grubbing  is  the  heavy  and  expensive  part  of  the  work 
of  clearing,  Heavy  machinerv  is  being  developed  for 
removing  stumps,  and  explosives  are  useful,  yet  hand 


SUBDUING   THE   LAND  121 

work  IS  necessary,  and  in  rare  cases  stumps  may  be  best 
removed  entirely  by  hand.  Some  of  the  most  necessary 
baud  tools  are  shown  in  Figure  44. 

The  art  of  digging  about  the  stump  with  shovel  and 
mattock,  of  cutting  the  roots  with  mattock  or  ax  and  of 
gradually  working  the  stump  loose  so  that  it  may  be 
displaced,  cannot  well  be  learned  from  the  written  page. 
Doing  the  work,  together  with  the  expert  advice  and 
counsel  of  one  experienced  in  the  business,  is  the  way 
this  and  many  other  things,  consisting  largely  of  manual 
operations,  may  best  be  learned.  There  is  much  oppor- 
tunity for  head  work,  and  the  man  who  uses  good  judg- 
ment as  to  where  and  how  to  strike,  conserves  his 
strength  and  makes  rapid  progress. 

Stump  pullers  are  becoming  a  most  useful  part  of  the 
clearing  outfit  and  are  adapted  to  a  large  proportion  of 
the  work.  These  machines  are  of  several  kinds.  Vari- 
ous forms  are  adapted  to  multiply  handpower.  One  of 
the  common  forms  of  this  type  of  machine  has,  as  its 
essential  parts,  a  strong  tripod,  and  a  powerful  screw 
worked  by  a  hand  lever  which  lifts  the  stump,  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  jackscrew,  except  that  it  is  used 
to  pull  instead  of  to  push. 

A  short,  strong  chain,  20  to  40  feet  long,  fastened  to  a 
heavy  lever,  and  a  team  hitched  to  the  other  end,  gives 
power  to  pull  out  many  stumps,  even  if  they  are 
as  large  as  2  feet  in  diameter.  A  very  large  pole,  30 
or  more  feet  long,  with  a  heavy  chain  to  wrap  around 
the  stump,  is  the  usual  device.  The  team  pulling  on 
the  small  end  of  the  pole  literally  twists  the  stump  loose 
from  the  earth. 

A  block  and  tackle,  applied  by  means  of  a  capstan, 
is  much  used  to  multiply  horse  and  steam  power.  The 
capstan,  fastened  to  one  or  more  strong  stumps  by  means 
of  guy  chains  or  cables,  is  the  main  feature  of  some  of  the 
most  practical  stump  pullers  in  use.    (See  Figures  45-47.) 


122 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Since  loggers  have  successfully  adapted  steam  engines 
to  drawing  logs  through  the  woods,  invention  has  been 
directed  to  the  use  of  steam  power  for  pulling  stumps. 
The  general  plan  is  to  use  an  engine  with  sufficient 
power  to  pull  stumps  or  trees,  with  a  long  cable.  A 
horse  or  team  is  used  to  carry  quickly  the  outer  end  of 
the  cable  from  the  dislodged  stump  to  the  one  next  to 
be  removed. 

Recently  devised  steam  stump-pulling  machinery 
promises  to  reduce  the  cost  of  removing  stumps.     These 

machines  are  too 
large  to  be  afforded  by 

3 Il^i>=-<s^     the   individual    farmer. 

They  may  be  owned  by 
a  group  of  co-operat- 
ing farmers,  or  by  per- 

Figure    47.     In    the    lower    figure    Is    shown    a  SOUS    who    OPCratC    them 
sectional   view    of   the   windlass   or    capstan    stump  " 

puller   anchored  to   the  stump  A,    and  pulling   the  f-^r    Viirp      Tn     crkmf»  racPQ 

stump  B,   direct.     The  upper  figure  shows  the  use  ^^^     uii  c.    J.U    suiiic  Cdsca 

of  a  single  block  in   doubling  the  power  in   pull-  ]o-nr\     r\(^a]i^r-c     iic^     +ViAc<a 

Ing    the     stump    B,     and    utilizing    two    anchors,  IdHU     UCd,iei  S>     UbC     LllCbC 

''""^'  ''^-  devices  to  clear  a  por- 

tion of  each  farm  offered  for  sale.  In  the  settlement  of 
a  new  region  the  land  dealer  who  thus  sells  partially 
cleared  farms  can  give  employment  to  new  settlers, 
who  in  return  for  part  of  their  wages  hire  the  machine 
to  clear  more  of  their  lands.  By  using  only  sufficient 
dynamite  to  jar  the  larger  stumps  loose  from  the  earth, 
so  they  may  be  brought  to  the  burning  pile  with  less 
adhering  soil,  the  stumps  are  easily  pulled  and  drawn 
by  the  cables  to  a  pile  near  the  engine.  Sometimes  an 
acre  of  stumps  are  thus  placed  in  one  pile  at  a  single 
setting  of  the  engine.  The  drum  which  winds  up  the 
cables  is  also  used  to  draw  the  engine  to  its  new  station. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  cable  is  attached  to  stumps  in 
the  area  to  be  next  cleared  and  as  the  drum  winds  it  up, 
the  engine,  now  made  free  of  its  guy  cables,  travels  on 
skids  to  its  new  location. 


SUBDUING   THE   LAND  123 

Some  stumps  may  be  partially  burned  by  boring  a  hole 
from  the  top  of  the  stump  down  diagonally  through  the 
side,  pouring  kerosene  into  this  slowly,  so  as  to  saturate 
the  walls  of  the  hole,  and  then  applying  a  match.  The 
hole  serves  as  a  chimney  to  give  draft  to  the  fire,  which 
causes  the  stump  to  burn.  Stumps  or  logs  in  the  pile 
which  refuse  to  burn  may  sometimes  be  started  anew 
by  thus  using  the  auger  and  a  small  amount  of  kero- 
sene. But  the  more  frequent  use  of  fire  in  removing 
stumps  is  to  cover  them  with  brush  and  waste  timber 
and  burn  part  of  the  stump  while  burning  the  other 
wood.  Remaining  portions,  as  large  roots,  may  then  be 
dislodged  by  pulling  them  with  the  stump  puller. 

The  cost  per  acre  of  clearing  land  of  stumps  varies 
from  a  few  dollars  to  a  hundred  dollars  or  more.  The 
kind  of  growth,  the  thickness  of  the  stumps,  the  kind 
of  soil  and  subsoil  and  the  value  of  the  wood  products 
secured  while  clearing  the  land  are  the  leading  items 
to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  net  cost.  There  is 
more  labor  connected  with  removing  stumps  from  a  clay 
or  from  a  stony  soil  than  from  a  sandy  soil  and  subsoil. 

The  species  of  tree  is  also  a  most  influential  factor  in 
the  cost  of  clearing  lands.  The  poplar  stump,  for  ex- 
ample, is  soft,  easily  broken,  and  not  large,  and  may  be 
removed  when  green  with  comparatively  little  trouble; 
and  if  killed,  it  will  rot  in  a  few  years  so  as  to  be  very 
easily  removed.  The  white  birch,  tamarack,  basswood 
and  jack  pine  stumps  are  also  easily  removed. 

The  white  pine,  on  the  other  hand,  grows  large,  has 
very  extensive  though  not  deeply  penetrating  roots.  It 
is  solid,  its  wood  is  full  of  pitch,  which  serves  as  a  pre- 
servative, and  it  will  remain  for  a  generation  and  still 
be  hard  to  remove.  Large  stumps  of  this  tree  often 
require  from  one  to  five  dollars'  worth  of  labor  and 
materials  to  remove  them.  Some  hickories  and  oaks, 
develop   large   stumps   with   strong   tap   roots,   holding 


124  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

them  very  firmly  to  the  soil.  The  wood  will  last,  in 
case  of  the  oaks,  almost  as  long  as  the  white  pine 
stumps.  The  number  of  stumps  per  acre  likewise  modi- 
fies the  cost,  as  does  also  the  amount  of  brush  and  logs, 
which  must  be  burned  or  hauled  off.  The  value  of  logs, 
cordwood,  posts,  etc.,  in  some  cases  may  be  equal  to 
or  greater  than  the  cost  of  clearing  the  field. 

Explosives  used  in  grubbing. — Explosives  are  coming 
into  general  use  in  removing  stumps.  Their  use  is  only 
in  part  to  throw  the  stumps  out  of  the  ground,  the 
greater  aid  being  to  jar  the  stump  loose  from  the  earth 
adhering  to  its  roots.  Stumps  which  are  pulled  by 
mechanically  applied  power  bring  up  with  their  roots 
large  quantities  of  earth  which  must  be  worked  loose 
with  shovel,  and  mattock,  requiring  no  small  amount  of 
labor,  as  this  earth  must  be  returned  to  the  hole  from 
which  the  stump  came.  The  stump  which  has  been 
thoroughly  shaken  with  a  charge  of  dynamite,  even  if  it 
must  then  be  pulled  by  the  stump  puller,  usually  brings 
up  but  little  earth.  Stumps  which  are  not  clean  of  earth 
require  a  long  time  to  dry  and  additional  labor  to  burn 
them.  Another  considerable  gain  in  using  a  powerful 
explosive  comes  from  splitting  the  stump  so  that  it  may 
be  more  easily  handled  and  piled  closer  in  the  log  pile, 
that  it  may  more  certainly  be  consumed  at  the  first  burn- 
ing. Stumps  which  are  pulled  up  entire  are  often  great 
sprawling  bodies,  the  roots  preventing  close  piling  in 
the  fire  heap,  often  requiring  a  second  or  a  third  piling 
and  refiring  before  they  are  all  consumed. 

The  nature  of  explosives  should  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  those  who  use  them  that  serious  accidents  may 
be  avoided.  Dynamite  should  be  handled  with  much  the 
same  care  as  would  be  used  in  handling  eggs.  It  should 
be  kept  cool,  yet  not  frozen,  and  the  sticks  of  dynamite 
should  be  handled  gently.  For  transporting,  it  should 
be  packed  in  sawdust  or  some  similar  material,  which 


SUBDUING   THE   LAND  12$ 

will  prevent  its  receiving  sudden  jars.  When  frozen,  it 
should  be  thawed  out  slowly  and  without  direct  contact 
with  the  heated  surface  of  a  stove  or  fuel.  Most  acci- 
dents in  cold  climates  happen  while  thawing  out  frozen 
dynamite.  Dynamite  is  sold  in  forms  so  that  one  or 
more  pieces  or  sticks  may  be  used  for  each  stump,  and 
suitable  fuses  are  also  made.  The  portions  of  stumps 
not  thrown  entirely  out  of  the  ground  by  the  explosive 
may  be  drawn  out  by  means  of  a  team  with  chain  and 
stump  hook;  though  if  large  roots  remain  deeply  im- 
bedded in  the  soil  the  stump  puller  may  be  used. 

The  position  in  which  to  place  the  dynamite  must  be 
determined  by  the  form  and  position  of  the  stump.  At 
the  side  of  and  under  the  stump,  in  a  hole  made  in  the 
earth  with  a  crowbar,  is  usually  the  most  advantageous 
place  in  case  of  large  pine  stumps.  In  some  cases,  it  is 
wise  to  bore  a  hole  in  the  stump,  and,  in  rare  cases,  to 
locate  the  load  of  explosive  under  the  center  of  the 
stump.  In  timbered  regions  where  much  clearing  is  in 
progress,  men  may  be  employed  who  are  especially 
expert  in  the  effective  and  economic  use  of  dynamite. 

Experience  with  a  given  kind  of  stump  under  certain 
conditions  of  soil  will  aid  the  judgment  of  the  intelligent 
man  in  locating  the  explosives  so  as  best  to  throw  the 
stump  out,  and  break  it  into  parts  which  may  be  easily 
piled  for  burning. 

Chemicals  for  destroying  stumps  have  been  experi- 
mented with,  but  so  far  as  known  none  of  them  have  been 
successfully  used. 

Bacteria  and  fungi  perform  an  important  part  in  the 
decay  of  stumps  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  work 
of  the  bacteria  might  be  encouraged  by  inoculating  the 
stump  with  the  proper  species,  or  by  supplying  them 
with  the  kinds  of  foods  or  conditions  which  would  cause 
them  to  multiply.  Forms  of  fungi  perform  an  important 
part  in  slowly  removing  stumps,  and  it  may  be  that  by 


126  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

mulching  or  by  otherwise  controlling  the  amount  of 
moisture  these  and  the  bacteria  would  be  encouraged  to 
do  their  work  more  rapidly. 

Burning  is  a  convenient  method  of  removing  logs, 
brush  and  stumps,  and  the  ashes  have  a  value  as  fer- 
tilizer. Some  care  is  required  in  piling  green  or  wet  logs 
or  stumps  so  that  when  set  on  fire  they  will  be  com- 
pletely consumed.  Since  labor  is  required  to  collect  and 
repile  the  partially  burned  wood,  which  is  so  charred  on 
the  outer  surface  that  it  will  not  readily  start  to  burn, 
the  manner  of  piling  the  first  time  is  of  importance. 
Waiting  until  the  piled  wood  has  had  ample  time  to  dry 
before  setting  it  on  fire  is  often  necessary.  Intelligence 
and  care  are  required  to  avoid  fire  spreading  into 
adjoining  forests  and  fields.  When  the  season  is  ex- 
cessively dry  and  the  danger  considerable  it  is  often  best 
to  defer  the  burning  until  rains  have  made  the  grass 
and  leaves  on  surrounding  lands  less  inflammable. 
Skidding  logs  together,  raising  them  on  the  heap,  and 
drawing  the  stumps  into  advantageous  positions  for  their 
complete  burning  requires  a  constant  exercise  of  intel- 
ligence. 

Partial  clearing  for  grass  lands. — Frequently  the  ex- 
pense of  removing  the  largest  stumps  from  a  field  which 
is  to  be  cultivated  is  so  great  that  until  the  stumps 
have  partially  decayed,  farmers  must  farm  around  them, 
but  the  general  practice  should  be,  as  far  as  practicable, 
to  clear  thoroughly  whatever  is  begun.  In  "  cut  over'* 
fields,  which  cannot  be  at  once  cleared  of  all  the  stumps, 
valuable  pasturage  may  be  had  by  clearing  out  and  burn- 
ing only  the  shrubs,  small  trees  and  down  timber.  The 
stumps  may  thus  be  left  for  the  rotting  process  to  make 
their  removal  easier  at  a  later  date.  Where  there  are 
valuable  young  trees  still  growing,  these,  too,  may  be 
left  and  only  the  open  spaces  cleared  out  to  be  seeded 
to  the  grasses  and  clovers  desired  for  pasturage.     Since 


SUBDUING   THE    LAND  12/ 

these  grass  and  clover  seeds  should  be  planted  in  freshly 
worked  soil  and  not  covered  deeply  by  leaves  and  weeds, 
it  is  wise,  in  many  cases,  to  choose  a  dry  time  and  burn 
the  surface  over,  using  care  to  remove  leaves  from  about 
valuable  trees,  thus  to  avoid  their  being  injured  by  the 
fire.  Cutting  up  the  surface  by  means  of  a  spring  tooth 
harrow,  or  a  heavily  built  and  weighted  A  harrow,  or 
double  A  harrow,  or  by  means  of  a  disk  harrow,  gives  a 
place  for  the  grass  seeds  to  germinate.  Experience 
proves  that  seeds  planted  in  these  lands,  in  northern 
or  drouthy  sections,  are  more  certain  to  germinate  and 
live  if  planted  early  in  the  spring.  This  gives  the  roots  a 
strong  hold  on  the  soil  before  hot,  dry  summer  conditions 
prevail,  and  the  crowns  are  then  sufficiently  mature  to 
endure  the  severity  of  the  first  winter.  In  southern 
moister  sections,  early  autumn,  or  even  late  autumn  or 
winter  planting  of  grasses  and  clover  is  sometimes  best. 
Fire  as  a  means  of  clearing  up  timber  lands  is  a  very 
useful  and  dangerous  agency.  In  very  dry  seasons 
great  forest  fires  sweep  over  large  tracts,  sometimes  cov- 
ering many  townships,  and  sometimes  entire  counties  are 
burned  over,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Hinckley  fire  in  Pine 
county,  Minnesota,  in  1894.  Immense  quantities  of  tim- 
ber of  more  or  less  value  are  destroyed,  the  brush  is 
burned  to  the  ground ;  partially  rotted  logs  and  other 
forms  of  "  down  timber  "  are  consumed.  But  these  forest 
conflagrations  in  dry  seasons  do  not  stop  with  the  con- 
sumption of  the  useful  trees  and  the  useless  wood  and 
brush.  They  burn  up  the  thick  mulch  of  leaves  and  twigs 
and  nearly  decayed  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
which  would  be  valuable  if  the  farmer  could  save  it  until 
his  plow  has  turned  it  under  the  furrow-slice  to  become 
useful  in  forming  fertility.  The  damage  from  fire  does 
not  even  stop  here.  The  heat  from  the  burning  wood  and 
leaves  penetrates  and  destroys  much  of  the  organic  mat- 
ter already  incorporated  among  the  stony  particles  of  the 


128 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  48.     Mud  boat. 


soil,  and  even  injures  the  mechanical  texture  of  soils 
already  lacking  in  binding  power.  The  leaves  and  other 
forms  of  nearly  decayed  plant  substances  are  especially 
needed  by  sandy  soils,  and  it  is  on  our  light  soils  that  fires 
most  frequently  cause  permanent  loss  of  fertility.  A  fire, 
in  a  very  dry  season,  w^ill  consume  all  the  soil  covering 

which  Nature  has  been 
slowly  accumulating 
for  centuries.  Even  in 
heavy  soils  all  the  fine 
humus  mulching  ma- 
terials should  be  care- 
fully preserved  and 
care  should  be  used  to 
select  seasons  for  burning  the  brush  and  stump  piles 
when  the  fire  will  not  burn  up  valuable  fertilizing 
matter  by  running  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Removing  stones. — Removing  stones  is  largely  a 
matter  of  main  strength.  Most  smaller  stones  should 
be  picked  from  the  sur- 
face by  hand  or  fork  as 
they  are  turned  up  by 
the  plow.  The  breaking 
plow  by  no  means  brings 
them  all  to  the  surface 
the  first  year,  but  each 
time  the  field  is  stirred  with  the  stubble  plow  a  new  crop 
of  stones  comes  to  the  surface.  The  only  way  to  get 
them  all  out  is  to  remove  them  as  they  are  brought  to 
the  surface,  or  uncovered  by  the  plow,  and  not  allow 
them  again  to  be  covered.  When  there  are  only  occa- 
sional stones  found,  the  plowman  may  carry  them  to  the 
end  of  the  field  in  a  small  box  on  the  plow,  but  if  there 
are  many,  a  man  should  follow  after  the  plow,  and  re- 
move them  with  the  stone  boat  or  wagon.  Where  the 
stones   are   thick,   a   low  wagon   is   best   for   stones   of 


Figure    49.     Low   or    handy    wagon. 


SUBDUING  THE   LAND  129 

medium  size,  and  the  stone  boat  for  larger  ones.     (See 
Figures  48,  49  and  50.) 

Machinery  and  tools. — A  two-wheeled  cart,  made  very 
strong  and  with  wheels  of  large  diameter,  is  a  useful  im- 
plement for  swinging  up  heavy  stones  and  transporting 
them.  The  requirements  in  the  way  of  tools,  etc.,  for 
removing  and  breaking  large  stones  are:  Shovels,  heavy 
chains  to  place  about  the  stones,  drills  and  wedges  for 
making  holes  and  giant  powder  or  other  explosives. 
Drawing  the  stones  out  of  their  settings  with  a  team,  like 
skidding  logs,  is  a  matter  requiring  skill,  and  also  a 
steady,  strong  team.  Using  dynamite  laid  on  the  stone 
or  some  explosive  placed  in  a  drill  hole  and  held  down 
with  tamped  clay,  while  a  comparatively  simple  matter, 
must  be  learned  by  experience,  else  too  much  expense 
will  be  entailed  for  materials,  and  there  will  be  too  muth 
danger  of  accidents  from  the  improper  handling  of  the 
explosives. 

Since  stones  are  often  useful,  they  may  be  drawn  to 
places  where  they  are  most  available  for  use.  If  in 
large  numbers  and  no  immediate  use  is  to  be  made  of 
them,  they  should  be  compactly  piled  where  they  will 
occupy  little  valuable  land,  where  they  will  not  be  un- 
sightly, and  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  not  harbor 
weeds. 

Uses  for  field  stones. — A  limited  number  of  field  stones 
may  be  found  so  useful  on  the  farm  where  rocks  from 
quarries  are  expensive  to  secure,  that  the  cost  of  remov- 
ing them  is  small  compared  with  their  value.  Material 
for  foundations  to  buildings  and  for  cellar  walls  may 
thus  be  secured  more  cheaply  than  from  a  distant  stone 
quarry.  Bridge  abutments,  stone  arches  for  smaller 
bridges  and  culverts,  retaining  walls,  roads  and  paths, 
may  be  made  of  stones  thus  collected;  and  with  fore- 
sight these  may  be  drawn  directly  from  the  field  to  the 
points  at  which  they  are  needed.     Stones  thus  secured 


130  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

are  useful  for  the  foundation  of  roads  and  walks.  Ditches 
along  the  roadside,  farm  ditches  through  land  which 
readily  washes,  may  be  paved  cheaply  with  field  stones; 
and  rather  than  leave  the  stones  in  unsightly  piles  along 
the  roadside  or  throughout  the  field,  it  sometimes  pays 
to  pile  them  up  into'  fences.  The  cost  of  wire  fences  is 
now  so  low,  however,  that  the  labor  of  piling  up  stone 
fences  and  of  repairing  them  will  not,  as  a  rule,  pay 
in  the  end. 

Removing  trees,  shrubs  and  roots  from  peaty  land. — 
Many  swamps   are   covered   with   trees.     Sometimes    a 

thick  growth,  as  of 
tamarack  or  spruce,  is 
formed, which  is  valuable 

Figure  50.    Stone  boat.  f^j.    p^^^g^    f^^j    ^^    ^^^^^ 

purposes.  Other  swamps  have  scattering  trees  of  small 
size,  and  in  other  cases  no  trees  are  to  be  seen,  but  under- 
neath the  upper  layers  of  peat  are  encountered  stumps, 
roots  and  logs  which  greatly  impede  the  work  of  making 
drains  and  of  cultivation.  Where  fire  can  be  safely  used 
to  consume  the  upper 
3  to  6  inches  of  peat, 
the  stumps  and  roots 
of  standing  or  decayed      ^,       „    „  ^    .  «  .    .  1 

°  -^       .         Figure    51.    Hook.    A    kind    of    large    hoe    used 

f«-ppc  thiic  linrnvfrPn  in  Western  Germany  to  upturn  the  coarse  surface 
Licca      uiius      uiicuvcicu     ^^^^^  ^  subduing  virgin  moorlands. 

may  then  be  easily  re- 
moved. The  roots  of  trees  growing  in  peat  do  not  pene- 
trate deeply,  but  spread  out  almost  horizontally.  By 
burning  ofif  the  covering  of  moss  and  peat,  the  roots  and 
stumps  are  also  burned,  or  are  so  exposed  that  they 
may  be  freely  lifted  out  of  the  peat  and  removed.  Any 
stumps,  roots  or  stems  of  trees  of  a  former  time  which 
have  been  covered  by  the  upbuilding  of  the  peat  and 
which  impede  the  plow  may  usually  be  drawn  out  by 
hand  or  team.  In  case  burning  is  not  practicable,  as 
where  the  surface  peat  cannot  be  gotten  sufficiently  dry. 


SUBDUING   THE    LAND  I3I 

or  where  it  is  so  dry  that  there  is  danger  of  burning  pit 
holes  in  the  peat,  much  force  and  labor  are  required  to 
pull  the  trees  and  stumps  out  and  pile  them  up  for  burn- 
ing. Some  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  burning  large  piles 
of  wood  on  peaty  soils,  as  the  fire  may  make  the  peat 
beneath  so  hot  and  dry  that  a  pit  will  be  burned  out, 
and  a  fire  thus  started  can  often  only  be  extinguished 
with  great  difficulty.  In  peaty  lands  which  are  used 
for  pastures,  and  in  some  which  are  used  for  meadows, 
the  slow  process  of  decay  may  be  allowed  to  remove 
stumps  and  roots.  When  the  peat  is  drained,  and  air 
takes  the  place  of  part  of  the  water  among  the  particles 
of  peat,  decay  goes  on  rapidly.  This  is  in  a  large  part 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  myriads  of  bacteria  which 
thrive  in  the  drier  soil  and  help  to  decompose  the  organic 
matter. 

Burning  the  surface  peat  as  a  means  of  getting  rid  of 
the  coarse,  unrotted,  recently  formed  moss  and  other 
forms  of  plant  life,  and  of  securing  a  finer  soil  in  the 
better  decayed  deeper  and  older  peat  in  which  to  plant 
crops,  is  important.  The  upper  6  to  lo  inches  of  newly 
drained  peaty  land  is  usually  a  loose  mass  of  moss  and 
may  in  some  instances  be  burned  off. 

Solidifying  by  pasturing. — Where  it  is  impracticable 
to  burn  off  or  to  otherwise  remove  the  surface  moss 
before  sowing  tame  grass  seed,  it  is  difficult  to  secure 
a  stand  of  grasses  or  clovers.  In  many  instances  where 
one  is  in  no  haste  to  subdue  fully  the  peaty  land, 
an  advantage  is  gained  by  having  animals  pasture  on 
it,  and  thus  compact  the  peat  by  tramping.  Animals 
may  be  encouraged  to  roam  over  the  fields  by  sowing 
such  pasture  plants  as  red-top,  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 
This  compacting  prevents  the  development  of  sphagnum 
or  other  mosses  and  forms  the  surface  into  a  soil-like 
condition,  thus  giving  the  grasses  a  better  chance  to 
thrive. 


132  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

The  packing  by  the  feet  of  animals  often  results  in  the 
formation  of  hummocks  which  make  mowing  for  hay 
next  to  impossible,  and  breaking  somewhat  difficult. 
Where  the  land  is  to  remain  for  some  time  in  pasture, 
these  objections  have  less  force. 

Plowing  and  pulverizing  peaty  lands  is  ordinarily  done 
with  the  plows,  pulverizers  and  harrows  in  ordinary  use 
on  the  farm.  Plows  might  be  made  that  would  be 
especially  adapted   to  breaking   such   land.     The   share 


Figure   52.     Burning  surface   peat   In   West   Germany   wliere  peaty  lands   are  called 
moorlands. 

should  be  broad,  so  that  a  wide  furrow  can  be  made,  and 
it  should  be  kept  sharp  so  as  to  cut  off  roots.  The 
coulter  should  be  adapted  to  cut  loose  the  edge  of  the 
soft,  mossy  furrow-slice  and  to  sever  all  but  the  largest 
roots.  Where  it  is  desired  to  use  moorlands  for  pastures 
or  meadows,  the  complete  destruction  of  wild  plants  and 
the  making  of  a  smooth  seed  bed  is  wise,  if  not  too  ex- 
pensive. Peaty  lands  once  subdued  are  cultivated  with 
much  the  same  plows  and  implements  used  in  solid  soils. 
Growing  crops  on  peaty  lands. — In  many  cases  the 
moorland  may  be  broken,  sown  to  flax  or  oats,  and  seeded 


SUBDUING   THE    LAND 


133 


down  to  tame  grasses,  to  remain  permanently;  or  the 
grass  sod  may  be  plowed  under  after  several  years,  one 
or  more  crops  of  flax,  oats  or  other  crops  grown,  and 
the  land  again  seeded  down.  These  soils  are  usually 
best  for  producing  grasses  or  vegetables,  and  are  some- 
times used  in  the  cultivation  of  celery.  But  if  fertilized, 
and  the  drainage  and  cultivation  properly  managed,  they 
will  produce  a  number  of  the  staple  crops.    They  are 


Figure  53.     Placing   bog  shoes   on   a   horse. 


not  good  wheat  soils.  Oats  thrive  better  than  most 
grains,  and  corn  for  fodder  may  also  be  raised  on  some 
peaty  soils. 

Timothy  and  alsike  clover,  or  timothy  alone,  will  make 
large  yields  of  hay  where  the  water  level  can  be  main- 
tained at  a  point  to  keep  up  the  proper  moisture  supply. 
Where  the  conditions  are  slightly  too  wet  for  these 
crops,  red-top  will  make  a  good  yield  of  hay  of  fair 
quality,  and  on  sorne  marshes  too  wet  for  red-top,  fair 


134  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

crops  of  hay  from  wild  grasses  are  produced.  Kentucky 
blue  grass  seeds  should  never  be  sown  on  lands  designed 
for  permanent  meadow,  because  this  grass  grows  too 
short  for  hay;  though,  owing  to  its  underground  root 
stalks,  it  can,  in  north  temperate  regions,  crowd  out 
most  of  the  better  meadow  grasses,  except  in  very  moist 
soils.  The  seeds  of  tame  grasses  or  clover  should  be 
sown  at  the  North  as  soon  in  spring  as  the  land  is  dry 
enough  to  allow  the  seeds  to  germinate.  The  seed  bed  is 
best  if  made  fine  and  smooth,  since  this  will  aid  in  secur- 
ing at  once  a  good  sod  and  an  even  surface  for  mowing.  In 
many  instances  it  is  beneficial  to  tear  up  the  meadow  or 
pasture  sod  on  peaty  lands  with  the  disk  harrow,  so  as 
to  relieve  the  sodbound  condition.  While  this  destroys 
a  portion  of  the  plants,  those  remaining  have  more  room 
and  respond  to  the  cultivation.  This  cultivation  should 
usually  be  done  as  early  in  spring  as  is  practicable,  or  in 
some  cases  late  in  the  fall. 

Manuring  peaty  soils. — Extensive  experiments  at  the 
Moor  Experiment  Station  at  Bremen,  Germany,  show 
that  peaty  lands  are  benefited  by  complete  fertilizers  con- 
taining nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  But  it 
was  also  found  that  stable  manures  are  superior  to  com- 
mercial fertilizers  for  these  soils.  Peaty  lands  have  an 
overabundance  of  old  inert  humus,  but  often  lack  the 
mineral  ingredients,  available  nitrogen  and  the  easily 
fermenting  vegetable  matter  of  recently  applied  manures. 
No  doubt,  the  stable  manure,  in  addition  to  supplying 
mineral  plant  food  and  nitrogen,  brings  to  the  soil  many 
useful  bacteria,  and  possibly  a  better  pabulum  of  food, 
for  these  minute  friends  than  otherwise  exists  in  the  peat. 

Breaking  prairie  sod. — The  time  which  vast  ex- 
perience has  proven  best  for  breaking  prairie  land 
is  in  the  late  spring  or  early  summer.  During 
the  summer  and  autumn,  the  perennial  plant  stores  up 
in  its  rootSj  crown  and  stems  food  with  which  to  start 


SUBDUING   THE   LAND  I35 

its  growth  the  next  spring,  this  food  serving  the 
plant  much  as  the  stored-up  food  of  the  seed 
nourishes  the  newly  born  plantlet.  In  the  spring,  after 
the  plant  has  drawn  upon  and  used  all  the  stored-up 
food,  and  before  it  has  had  time  to  lay  by  a  similar 
supply  for  the  next  season,  is  the  best  time  to  kill  it. 
During  this  stage  the  leaves  are  very  actively  at  work, 
the  new  growth  of  roots  and  stems  is  succulent,  and  the 
plant  is  in  no  condition  to  endure,  after  being  cut  in  two 
and  turned  with  its  top  buried  in  the  soil  and  its  roots 
exposed  to  the  hot  sun.  The  old  portions  of  the  plant 
are  in  a  weak  condition,  the  new  succulent  parts  have 
not  as  yet  become  hardy  and  able  to  withstand  rough 
treatment,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  moisture  and 
warm  temperature  of  summer,  and  with  conditions 
favorable  to  the  bacterial  ferments,  the  sod  will  rapidly 
soften  and  decay.  Late  in  May  or  June,  or  early  in 
July,  are  the  best  times  for  breaking,  in  the  middle  North- 
west, and  earlier  to  the  southward.  The  farmers  of  each 
region  soon  learn  the  limits  of  time  before  and  after 
which  the  overturned  prairie  sods  do  not  rot  well. 

Prairie  sods  which  are  tough  and  strong,  rot  best  if 
cut  only  about  3  inches  deep,  or  as  shallow  as  the  plow 
can  be  made  to  "  swim "  and  do  perfect  work.  On 
lighter  lands  where  the  grasses  grow  in  bunches  with- 
out forming  a  continuous  sod,  or  on  prairie  lands  on 
which  the  sod  has  been  killed  or  much  weakened  by 
close  pasturing  or  by  the  tramping  of  stock,  deeper 
breaking  may  be  done. 

Where  heavy  soils  are  broken  early  and  shallow,  they 
may  be  "  backset "  in  the  autumn  so  as  to  secure  a  fine 
seed  bed.  In  backsetting  tough  sod,  the  plow  is  run  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  breaker  ran,  and  the  furrow 
is  turned  back  and  with  it  an  inch  or  more  of  the  sub- 
soil. On  lands  upon  which  the  sods  are  not  tough,  the 
breaking  plow  or  the  stubble  plow  can  be  run  across  at 


136  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

right  angles  with  the  furrows  made  in  breaking,  the 
sharp  rolling  coulter  being  used  to  cut  the  sods  cross- 
wise. The  earth  cut  below  the  first  furrow  is  thrown 
on  top  by  the  plow  and  forms  a  coating  of  fine  material 
over  the  tougher  sods,  and  this  loose  earth  is  used  to 

advantage  in  smoothing  the 
whole  into  a  fine  seed  bed. 
Where  the  sod  is  very  weak 
and  the  breaking  was  done 
Figure  54.  Breaking  piow^with  rather  dccply,  the  disk  pulver- 
roiiing  coulter.  -^^j.^    ^j^^    spriug-tooth   harrow 

or  even  the  common  spike-tooth  harrow,  may  give  a  better 

treatment  than  to  backset,  for  crops  like  wheat,  which 

prefer  a  compact  furrow-slice.     For  the   cereal   grains, 

which  need  to  be  sown  very  early,  it  is  often  better  to 

complete  the  preparation  of  the  soil  in  the  fall.     While 

it  is  customary  to  leave  most  newly  broken  prairie  land 

fallow  the  first  year,  it  ofttimes 

pays    to    sow    a    crop    of    flax, 

millet,  fodder  corn  or  turnips; 

and    even    beans    and    potatoes      ^,^^,^  .^    ^^^^..^^  ^,^^  ^j^, 

may    sometimes    be    profitably  '^'^'^^^^  "°"""'•• 

grown  on  newly  broken  prairie  where  the  sod  is  weak. 

Plows  for  breaking  prairie  sod  are  now  so  perfected 
that  most  of  the  prominent  plow  firms  make  breakers 
suited  to  each  section  of  the  country.  For  heavy  work, 
and  where  stones  hinder,  single  walking  breakers  are 
used,  or  the  ordinary  gang  plow  is  transformed  into  a 
breaker  by  replacing  with  "  breaker  bottoms  "  the  mold- 
boards  and   shares  used   for  stubble   plowing. 

Plows  suited  to  the  work  of  breaking  brush  or  timber 
lands  are  made  on  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  those 
used  in  prairie  breaking.  The  parts  must  be  stronger, 
to  resist  the  strains  in  striking  stumps  and  roots.  The 
moldboard  does  not  need  to  be  so  slanting,  since  there 
is  rarely  a  tough  sod  to  turn,  and  the  furrow  is  usually 


SUBDUING   THE    LAND  137 

made  deeper.  In  prairie  breaking  the  rolling  coulter 
is  often  preferred;  in  timber  breaking  the  standing 
coulter  is  generally  found  more  satisfactory.  Timber 
lands  are  plowed  4  to  7  inches  deep.  Holes  left  by  the 
removal  of  stumps  should  be  first  leveled  up.  The  Slush 
Scraper,  the  Fresno  Scraper,  or  even  the  Reversible 
Road  Machine  will  do  this  work  in  many  cases  much 
more  expeditiously  than  it  can  be  done  by  hand. 

Mixing  sand  into  clay  soils,  or  mixing  clay  or  muck 
into  sandy  soils,  is  done  in  some  cases,  but  only  where 
the  benefit  is  very  large,  so  as  to  repay  the  cost  of 
high-priced  labor.  Spreading  sand  over  marshes  de- 
signed for  cranberries,  has  been  found  to  pay,  where 
the  conditions  are  such  that  this  greatly  increases  the 
yields  of  the  cranberries.  And  in  rare  cases  mucky 
lands  which  were  too  wet  for  tame  grasses,  as  beside  a 
stream,  have  been  made  into  very  productive  soils  by 
the  addition  of  a  thin  coating  of  sand.  With  modern 
machinery,  earth  may  be  moved 
much  more  cheaply  than  for- 
merly, and  the  ameliorating  of 
inhospitable  soils  may  eventu- 
ally become  more  common, 
though  now  good  lands  are  so 
low  in  price  that  only  for  small 
areas,  and  for  very  especial  pur- 
pose,   will    it    pay    to    haul    heavy        figure     Se.'^mon    gang    plow 

earthy  materials  to  mix  with  the  """"^  ^'^^^''  *'°*'^"'- 
soil.  Carting  dried  peat  into  barns  or  into  manure  cellars, 
or  mixing  it  directly  into  the  compost  heaps,  is  often 
profitable,  as  it  decomposes  there  and  aids  in  conserv- 
ing the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the  vegetable  manures, 
and  when  placed  on  the  land  adds  somewhat  to  the 
humus-making  substances. 

Alkali  Soils. — One  of  the  troublesome  and  but  par- 
tially solved  problems  is  the  treatment  of  soils  which 


138  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

have  an  excess  of  soluble  alkaline  compounds.  Flood- 
ing the  land,  and  then  drawing  off  the  water  after  it 
has  dissolved  a  quantity  of  alkali,  is  a  plan 
which  has  been  suggested  for  heavy,  flat  lands,  but  it 
is  not  practicable  in  most  cases.  Dressing  heavily  with 
rotted  barn  manure  has  a  temporary,  beneficial  effect, 
as  has  also  sometimes  burning  a  thick  layer  of  straw 
upon  the  soil  and  thus  charring  the  surface. 

Irrigating  the  alkaline  soil  with  a  surplus  of  water 
which  is  carried  off  by  means  of  underground  drains,  is 
an  expensive  method  of  leaching  out  the  excess  of  salts, 
which  is  successfully  used  in  some  districts  where  irriga- 
tion is  practiced.  Irrigation  may,  in  many  cases,  in- 
crease the  injurious  effects  of  alkali  by  supplying  to  the 
soil  large  amounts  of  water  which  sink  down  to  only  a 
short  depth  and  are  returned  to  the  surface  by  capillary 
action.  Upon  evaporation,  this  water  deposits,  or  leaves, 
at  the  surface  of  the  soil,  soluble  salts  which  it  absorbed 
from  the  subsoil.  The  water  in  passing  down  through 
the  soil  goes  so  rapidly  that  it  does  not  again  dissolve 
all  these  soluble  salts,  and  thus  they  gradually  accumu- 
late in  the  furrow-slice,  and  the  roots  of  the  plant  are 
obliged  to  feed  in  a  soil  too  strongly  impregnated  with 
the  substances  which,  in  smaller  quantities,  would  allow 
them  to  thrive  and  grow.  Seepage  waters  coming 
through  pervious  layers  of  earth,  from  higher  areas,  and 
moistening  hillsides  or  lower  areas,  often,  upon  evaporat- 
ing, leave  alkaline  deposits  resulting  in  "  alkali  spots." 
Under-drains  and  open  ditches,  to  divert  the  seepage 
water,  are  sometimes  effective  in  preventing  the  ac- 
cumulation of  alkali  on  the  surface  or  in  remedying 
alkalinity. 

Terracing  hillsides  is  sometimes  done  in  fields  of  con- 
siderable size.  In  gardens  it  is  frequently  resorted  to, 
that  cultivation  may  be  made  easier,  to  prevent  the  soils 
being  furrowed  out  so  badly  by  the  waters  washing  down 


SUBDUING   THE   LAND  139 

the  hillsides,  and  as  an  aid  in  making  it  practical  to  use 
irrigating  waters.  In  many  of  the  southern  states  ter- 
racing is  practiced  extensively  on  the  large  general  fields 
devoted  to  cotton,  corn  and  other  crops.  In  many  cases 
where  terracing  has  not  been  done,  the  fields  are  so  badly 
gullied  that  they  are  ruined  for  field  crop  cultivation. 
By  terracing,  the  water  is  conducted  gently  sidewise  and 
thus  carried  slowly  around  the  hills  and  down  the  slopes, 
without  forming  streams  which  wash  out  gullies  in  the 
easily  eroded  subsoil. 


CHAPTER  IX 
DRAINAGE 

The  work  of  crop  production  is  nearly  all  concerned 
with  classes  of  plants  which  have  been  evolved  through 
cycles  of  ages  on  soils  containing  only  capillary  water. 
Our  field  crops,  garden  crops,  fruit,  forest  and  orna- 
mental trees  are  nearly  all  accustomed  to  soils  in  which 
the  ground  water  does  not  rise  within  several  feet  of  the 
surface.  The  ground  water  rising  to,  or  nearly  to,  the  sur- 
face, even  for  short  intervals,  reduces  the  yields  of  many 
crops.  In  very  few  cases,  indeed,  are  the  crops  made 
less  productive  by  systems  of  drainage  which  rapidly 
remove  all  ground  water  from  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
several  feet. 

Taken  in  its  entirety,  land  drainage  is  of  vast  im- 
portance. There  a^e  many  large  areas,  in  some  cases 
hundreds  of  miles  across,  from  which  standing  water 
must  be  removed,  or  which  must  be  protected  from  oft- 
recurring  flood  water.  There  are  large  areas,  including 
a  few  or  many  farms,  for  which  drainage  systems  must 
be  constructed  by  the  voluntary  co-operation  of  the 
owners,  or  by  the  county  or  state,  with  cost  and  benefits 
equalized  among  the  owners.  But  the  larger  total  of  final 
expense  is  the  drainage  within  the  millions  of  farms, 
whether  into  a  natural  outlet  or  into  an  outlet  provided 
by  large  community  drains. 

There  is  great  variety  of  conditions  where  drainage 
will  pay,  ranging  from  the  deep  pond  to  the  hillside 
which,  only  in  occasional  years  of  unusual  rainfall  is  so 
wet  as  to  reduce  crop  yields.  The  wet  sloughs,  or 
bottoms,  along  streams,  the  nearly  level  bottom  lands, 
and  the   heavy   clay   lands   constitute   the   bulk   of  the 

140 


DRAINAGE  I4I 

lands  needing  drainage ;  though  the  ponds,  seepy  hill- 
sides, alkali  areas  under  irrigation  and  other  minor 
classes  of  areas  are  also  large  in  the  aggregate.  The 
values  now  going  to  waste  in  lands  which,  on  account 
of  too  much  water,  are  not  under  cultivation,  or  are  not 
yielding  the  full  return  on  the  capital  and  labor  in- 
vested in  their  cultivation,  is  represented  by  hundreds 
of  millions,  if  not  by  billions  of  dollars,  in  the  United 
States  alone. 

The  writer  knows  of  no  cases  where  the  investment 
in  well-constructed  drains,  on  lands  clearly  needing 
drainage,  has  not  proven  profitable.  On  the  whole,  there 
has  been  far  too  much  conservatism  in  draining  out  the 
wet  places  on  the  farm,  and  in  co-operative  efforts  of 
individuals  and  public  agencies  in  promoting  and  build- 
ing community  drains. 

There  are  very  few  forms  of  property  in  which  money 
can  be  more  safely  invested  than  in  lands  which  have 
been  properly  reclaimed  by  drainage.  Underdrains  of 
tile  are  nearly  as  permanent  forms  of  wealth  as  the  soil 
itself. 

Lands  needing  drainage. — Those  soils  need  draining 
which  are  too  wet  for  the  crops  we  wish  to  grow  on  them, 
though  some  of  these  may  not  pay  for  draining,  es- 
pecially if  they  are  so  situated  that  the  cost  per  acre  will 
be  large.  Fields  requiring  draining  may  be  mentioned 
under  the  following  heads: 

Slough. — Low,  flat  areas  over  which  the  water  usually 
flows  in  a  sluggish  manner,  seeping  through  the  surface 
and  passing  away  slowly,  are  common  in  nearly  all 
neighborhoods,  and  many  fai'ms  have  one  or  more  of 
them.  Removing  obstructions  from  the  sloughs,  or  plow- 
ing them  so  as  to  permit  the  surface  water  to  flow  more 
freely,  will  often  make  these  low  areas  sufficiently  dry 
for  the  cultivation  of  crops  in  rotation  or,  at  least,  for 
the  growing  of  useful   meadows  of  cultivated  grasses. 


142  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Cultivating  lands  which  drain  into  sloughs  sometimes 
results  in  so  much  less  water  seeping  downward  into 
the  slough  that  it  does  not  thereafter  need  drainage. 
The  cultivation  evidently  results  in  more  of  the  water 
percolating  into,  and  being  stored  in,  the  upper  several 
feet  of  the  surface  of  fields  and  being  from  there  trans- 
pired back  into  the  air  by  the  rapidly  growing  plants, 
which  usually  are  more  luxuriant  than  were  the  native 
grasses  or  other  native  plants. 

Ponds,  swamps  and  sink  holes. — Glaciers,  in  some 
northern  districts,  in  depositing  debris,  glacial  water  in 
assorting  and  spreading  out  the  solid  materials,  and 
water  from  snow  and  rain  where  there  was  no  glacier, 
have  caused  many  flat  or  saucer-shaped  places  to  be 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  land.  If  beneath  these  low 
areas  there  are  layers  of  impervious  clay,  water  accu- 
mulates, making  them  too  wet  for  the  growing  of  cul- 
tivated crops.  Drainage  through  open  ditches,  tile 
drains,  or  vertical  drains,  must  be  resorted  to  for  the 
removal  of  surplus  water  which  accumulates  in  these 
places.  In  some  cases  these  low  areas  are  so  situated 
that  drainage  is  impractical  or  too  expensive  to  be 
profitably  executed. 

Lake  borders. — Many  lakes  are  bordered  by  lands 
which  lie  at  or  very  little  above  the  level  of  lake  water. 
These  may  be  drained  by  lowering  the  lake,  or,  in  some 
cases,  conducting  the  surplus  water  away  from  the  lake. 
In  many  cases  it  is  impractical  to  drain  these  lands. 
The  government  holds  that  bodies  of  water  of  consider- 
able size  belong  to  the  public  at  large  and  not  to  private 
individuals.  When  the  national  government  surveys 
new  territory  preparatory  to  its  settlement,  all  water 
areas  of  considerable  depth  and  size  are  carefully  sur- 
veyed and  their  borders  are  accurately  mapped  by  the 
surveyors.  This  surveying  and  mapping  is  called 
"  meandering,"   and   no   one   has    a   right   to   lower   the 


DRAINAGE  1 43 

water  in  a  meandered  lake  without  consent.  Where  the 
area  of  low  land  lies  along  the  stream  through  which 
the  lake  discharges  its  supply  of  water,  it  is  often  prac- 
ticable to  construct  surface  or  tile  drains  which  will  dis- 
charge their  water  at  some  point  down  the  stream. 
Where  low  areas  lie  on  the  side  of  the  lake  opposite 
the  outlet,  and  higher  land  rises  behind  them,  there  is 
usually  no  chance  for  an  outlet  away  from  the  lake,  and 
owing  to  these  difficulties  many  of  these  lands  cannot 
well  be  drained.  Where  such  areas  are  large  and  valu- 
able, however,  they  may  be  drained  by  a  system  of 
dikes,  drains  and  pumping  machinery,  conducting  the 
water  through  ditches  to  a  low  point  near  the  lake,  and 
then  elevating  it  over  the  embankments  by  pumps  oper- 
ated by  steam  or  other  power.  Large  areas  of  land  in 
Holland  have  been  thus  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  and 
much  more  is  now  being  reclaimed  at  great  expense. 
The  streams  which  pass  through  these  "  Netherlands  " 
are  conducted  to  the  sea  by  means  of  large  embankments, 
called  dikes,  and  not  allowed  to  overflow  their  banks 
and  thus  spread  out  over  the  fields,  even  in  times  of 
floods,  so  that  all  of  the  water  that  it  is  necessary  to 
pump  out  over  the  embankments  is  that  which  actually 
falls  upon  the  land.  These  flat  lands  are  so  rich  that 
this  trouble  and  expense  have  well  repaid  the  thrifty 
people  of  Holland.  As  our  country  becomes  more 
densely  populated,  the  areas  which  we  will  thus  reclaim 
will  increase.  The  great  irrigation  projects  of  the  West 
are  bringing  us,  also,  to  see  that  very  large  diking  and 
draining  projects  are  feasible  and  may  be  profitable. 

Springy  hillsides. — Since  the  earth  composing  hills  is 
often  deposited  in  layers,  the  water  which  penetrates  the 
soil  on  higher  portions  of  the  land  is  often  arrested  in 
its  downward  course  by  an  impervious  layer  of  clay  or 
rock.  If  above  the  dense  stratum  there  is  a  layer  of  sand, 
gravel  or  mixed  earth,  through  which  the  water  can  seep 


144  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

sidewise,  it  naturally  seeks  its  lowest  level  and  follows 
the  slope  of  the  layer  of  clay  or  stone.  If  this  imper- 
vious layer  extends  out  to  the  side  of  a  hill,  the  water 
flows  out  and  spreads  through  the  surface  soil  of  the 
hillside.  Since  this  flow  of  spring  water  is  more  or  less 
constant,  it  may  keep  a  considerable  layer  of  the  surface 
of  the  hillside  or  level  land  beyond  the  hill,  or  of  a  de- 
pression into  which  it  runs,  so  wet  that  there  is  too 
much  water  in  the  soil  for  cultivated  plants,  and  only 
sedges  and  other  water-loving  plants  will  grow.  If 
there  is  considerable  of  this  water  centered  in  one  point, 
we  term  it  a  spring.  In  some  cases  the  spring  water 
oozes  slowly  out  over  a  wide  area ;  in  other  cases  it 
flows  gently  from  one  place;  and  in  others  it  bubbles 
upward  as  if  confined  between  an  upper  and  a  lower  im- 
pervious stratum  and  had  broken  a  passageway  through 
the  upper  one,  and  thus  finding  an  outlet  had  centered 
in  a  spring.  Some  springy  hillsides  have  been  so  long 
kept  thoroughly  saturated  with  water  that  the  dead 
roots,  stems  and  leaves  of  plants  have  been  preserved 
and  a  layer  of  peat  has  been  formed. 

Flat  lands. — Lands  which  have  not  a  natural  slope  are 
often  kept  wet  by  more  rain  falling  on  them  than  runs 
off  or  is  evaporated.  Thus,  in  Louisiana,  a  large  area  of 
land,  made  up  of  deposits  from  the  Mississippi  river,  is 
flat  and  must  be  drained  to  be  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
cultivated  crops.  In  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of 
the  North,  in  Minnesota,  North  Dakota  and  Manitoba, 
likewise,  there  is  a  large  level  area  formed  by  deposits 
of  coarse  till  and  on  top  of  this  a  fine  clay  from  the 
great  glacier.  This  was  deposited  while  that  area  was 
covered  by  what  is  now  known  as  "  Ancient  Lake 
Agassiz."  (See  Figure  7.)  In  Illinois,  Indiana  and 
Iowa,  there  are  large  level  areas  from  which  the  natural 
rainfall  is  not  removed  with  sufficient  rapidity  by  natural 
drainage  and  evaporation  to  make  them  suitable  for  the 


DRAINAGE  I45 

most  profitable  cropping,  and  in  other  States  north  and 
south  there  are  larger  or  smaller  areas  of  flat  lands 
which  need  draining. 

Side  flooding. — Along  rivers  and  streams  there  are 
areas  which  are  subject  to  flooding  by  the  streams  rising 
and  flowing  out  over  the  banks.  There  are  other  areas 
where  there  are  no  well-defined  streams  which  receive 
the  flood  water  from  the  surrounding  lands,  and  are  thus 
made  too  wet  from  the  lack  of  suitable  channels  in  which 
the  water  can  run  off.  In  sections  where  the  drouth  is 
excessive,  as  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  west,  lands 
which  receive  flood  water  have  a  great  advantage,  since 
they  are  thus  naturally  irrigated,  and  in  that  dry  climate 
the  water  does  not  usually  stand  on  them  so  long  as  to 
kill  out  the  plants.  But  in  regions  of  considerable  rain- 
fall, it  is  generally  desirable  to  prevent  water  from 
higher  lands  flowing  over  the  fields  used  for  cultivated 
crops,  depending  only  upon  the  rain  which  falls  directly 
upon  each  acre.  The  Nile  valley  in  Egypt  is  an  excellent 
example  of  the  lands  naturally  irrigated  and  also  fer- 
tilized by  annual  deposits  of  mud. 

Localities  especially  needing  drainage. — Some  districts 
need  drainage  only  on  small  areas,  each  drain  confined 
to  one,  or,  at  most,  a  few  neighboring  farms.  In  other 
cases  the  drainage  becomes  a  large  problem  concerning 
one  or  more  countries.  Thus,  in  the  valley  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  there  is  a  flat  area  75  miles  by  300 
or  more,  covering  several  counties  in  Minnesota  and 
North  Dakota,  and  a  large  area  in  Manitoba  which  need 
draining  of  flood  water.  Here  are  many  conditions 
which  require  co-operation  of  neighboring  farmers  of 
an  entire  township,  or  several  townships,  and,  in  some 
cases,  two  or  more  counties.  The  problem  in  that 
region  has  been  such  a  large  one  that  the  State  of  Min- 
nesota has  appropriated  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars 
to  aid  in  constructing  very  large  main  drains  into  which 


146  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

the  counties  and  townships  may  run  smaller  drains,  and 
with  which  the  farmers,  in  turn,  may  connect  their  farm 
drains.  Even  the  aid  of  the  United  States  has  been 
invoked,  and  there  may  prove  to  be  sufficient  cause  for 
co-operation  between  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In 
northeast  Minnesota  are  large  peaty  swamps,  in  some 
cases  covering  many  thousands  of  acres.  These  cannot 
well  be  drained  by  individual  farmers,  since  no  farmer 
can  get  an  outlet  unless  a  general  canal  is  built,  into 
which  he  can  conduct  his  farm  drains.  Minnesota,  fol- 
lowing Illinois,  Ohio,*  Indiana  and  other  older  States, 
has  recognized  the  need  of  the  county  and  even  the  State 
co-operating  with  the  farmers  in  constructing  large 
drains,  and  the  State  legislature  has  passed  laws  under 
which  landowners,  townships  and  counties  may  organ- 
ize into  associations  coroperating  in  the  drainage  of  large 
districts. 

Cost  and  profits  must  be  carefully  studied. — Where 
good  lands  are  low  in  price,  drainage  must  be  done  at 
slight  expense  per  acre  to  justify  the  investment.  On 
the  other  hand,  where  the  lands  are  valuable,  consider- 
able expense  may  be  put  into  open  and  tile  drains  and 
a  profit  made  from  the  investment.  In  most  cases  drain- 
ing of  the  really  wet  lands  can  be  done  for  a  sum  far  less 
than  the  increased  value  produced.  Surface  drains  can 
often  be  used  to  reclaim  land,  the  increased  value  of 
which  will  represent  many  times  the  cost  of  the  drain. 
In  some  cases  a  single  drain  will  carry  the  water  off,  or 
keep  it  off,  a  large  area,  as  in  a  wide  slough ;  while  in 
other  cases,  in  sections  where  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall, 
open  or  tile  drains  are  necessarily  placed  close  together. 
Since  tile  draining  is  quite  expensive,  it  usually  pays 
only  where  the  drained  lands  are  relatively  high  in  price, 

*The  revised  drainage  law  of  Ohio  is  regarded  as  being  a  model 
of  its  kind;  under  it  great  drainage  projects  have  been  put  into 
operation  at  a  remarkably  low  cost  and  with  equitable  adjustment 
of  both  public  and  private  interests. 


DRAINAGE  147 

$40  per  acre  or  upwards.  There  are  practical  cases,  how- 
ever, where  tile  drains  pay  on  cheap  lands,  as  where  one 
line  of  tile  will  carry  off  the  water  from  a  large  area. 
The  judgment  of  an  expert  is  often  worth  securing  to 
determine  whether  the  probable  profits  will  be  sufficient 
to  warrant  the  expense  of  a  drain,  as  well  as  to  plan  the 
proposed  drain. 

How  to  determine  where  drainage  is  needed. — The 
farmer  who  sees  his  lands  from  season  to  season  can 
determine  the  injury  to  crops,  or  the  difficulty  of  raising 
desired  crops  on  any  wet  areas.  The  purchaser  who 
would  estimate  the  need  and  the  probable  cost  of  drain- 
age on  lands  which  he  desires  to  purchase,  must  depend 
largely  upon  inspection  and  upon  the  credited  state- 
ments of  those  who  have  observed  the  land  for  a  series 
of  years.  If  there  is  water  on  the  surface,  if  wild  plants 
which  grow  only  upon  wet  soils  are  found,  or  if  there  is 
other  evidence  that  the  soil  is  not  suitable  for  those 
crops  which  thrive  best  on  arable  land,  the  need  of  drain- 
ing is  easily  seen.  In  some  instances  useful  facts  can  be 
learned  by  making  holes  here  or  there  with  a  spade  or  a 
posthole  auger,  and  observing,  from  time  to  time,  the 
height  of  the  ground  water  in  these  little  wells.  By 
studying  the  soil  throughout  successive  seasons,  im- 
portant facts  may  be  learned.  Where  the  land  is  in  cul- 
tivated crops,  or  even  in  tame  grasses,  the  effect  of  the 
water  in  doubtful  areas  may  easily  be  studied  as  affecting 
the  health  and  yield  of  the  crops.  Most  domesticated 
plants  growing  in  soil  containing  more  water  than  they 
need  become  yellow,  do  not  grow  luxuriantly  and  yield 
but  little,  and  sometimes  are  killed. 

The  area  of  the  watershed  which  discharges  its  water 
over  any  given  area  must  be  carefully  determined  and 
taken  into  consideration  in  determining  whether  the  land 
needs  draining,  so  as  better  to  estimate  the  amount  and 
influence    of    the    flood    water.       Sometimes    a    simple 


148  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

drain  may  divert  this  water  so  as  not  to  necessitate  the 
draining  of  a  large  area. 

The  stratification  of  the  soil  where  spring  or  seepage 
water  occurs  should  be  studied  when  practicable  to  do  so. 
This  can  sometimes  be  done  effectively  by  making  holes 
several  feet  deep  in  the  wet  area  with  a  posthole  auger. 

Lands  not  needing  drainage. — Where  Nature  has  so 
formed  the  surface  of  the  ground  that  the  excess  of 
water  easily  runs  off,  or  has  put  together  the  particles  of 
the  soil  and  subsoil  so  that  the  water  can  readily  per- 
colate downward,  there  is  usually  nothing  to  be  gained 
by  a  system  of  drainage.  Hillsides  with  open  subsoils 
do  not  need  drainage.  In  localities  where  there  is  not 
a  very  large  amount  of  rainfall,  drainage  has  very  little 
effect,  even  in  heavy  soils  on  hillsides. 

Level  lands  through  which  water  can  easily  percolate 
do  not  need  artificial  drainage,  since  the  drainage  down- 
ward is  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  excess  water.  It  is 
desirable  for  the  water  to  seep  through  the  soil,  rather 
than  to  run  over  its  surface. 

Heavy  lands  in  dry  climates,  whether  rolling  or  flat, 
usually  do  not  need  draining,  or  only  a  sufficient  amount 
to  prevent  flooding  in  case  of  unusual  storms.  Here  it 
is  desirable  to  let  the  water  from  rains  lie  on  the  land 
for  a  short  time,  giving  it  an  abundance  of  time  to  be 
absorbed,  and  preventing  as  much  from  running  off  the 
surface  as  possible.  The  soil  and  subsoil  are  great 
reservoirs  which  must  be  relied  upon  to  store  up  water 
to  be  used  during  periods  of  drought.  In  regions  of 
slight  or  irregular  rainfall,  it  may  be  advisable  to  risk 
the  crops  suffering  some  during  wet  periods,  even  if  the 
water  stands  on  the  fields.  This  water  will  go  deep  into  the 
subsoil  and  be  held  available  for  crops  at  a  future  time. 

Drainage  and  rainfall. — The  greater  the  rainfall  the 
greater  need  there  is  of  drainage.  In  western  Dakota, 
Montana  and  oth^r  semi-arid  districts,  drainage  is  very 


DRAINAGE  1 49 

seldom  a  problem,  except  as  a  mere  adjunct  to  irrigation 
on  the  relatively  small  areas  where  water  for  the  irriga- 
tion can  be  secured.  Most  of  the  denser  lower  lands 
require  either  surface  or  tile  draining  in  regions  of  much 
rainfall,  and  some  of  the  more  dense  soils,  even  on  the 
hillsides,  are  benefited  by  removing  their  excess  of  water. 
In  England,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  proximity 
to  the  ocean  keeps  the  air  moist,  thereby  decreasing 
evaporation,  a  large  portion  of  the  land  may  be  drained 
with  profit.  There,  even  the  hillsides,  if  the  soil  is  at 
all  close  in  texture,  will  produce  better  crops  if  well  tile 
drained.  In  countries,  such  as  portions  of  Italy,  where 
the  rainfall  is  three  or  four  times  as  much  as  in  the 
Mississippi  valley,  the  drainage  must  be  very  complete. 
The  land  is  ridged  so  as  to  carry  off  as  much  of  the 
water  over  the  surface  as  is  practicable,  and  tile  drains 
are  used  to  remove  the  surplus  water  from  the  subsoil, 
even  in  soils  not  very  dense. 

The  benefits  of  drainage  are  apparent  in  many  ways. 
The  individual  farmer  is  greatly  benefited,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood is  often  made  more  healthful;  and  with  the 
better  profits  in  farming  the  entire  community  and  the 
state  are  built  up.  Elliot,  in  his  book  "  Engineering  for 
Land  Drainage,"  says  that  in  one  Indiana  township 
especially  needing  drainage,  averaging  for  five  years 
before  drainage  and  five  years  after  drainage,  the  yield 
of  wheat  was  increased  from  9^  to  1934  bushels  per 
acre,  the  yield  of  corn  from  31^  to  74^,  and  that  the 
physicians'  books  showed  1480  calls  to  visit  malarial 
patients  for  the  five  years  before,  and  only  490  cases  for 
the  five  years  following  drainage.  Thus  the  yields  of 
crops  were  doubled  and  the  malarial  cases  were  divided 
by  three.  Many  individual  farms  are  changed  from 
malarial  to  healthful  homes  by  draining  out  swampy 
areas.  The  development  of  our  country  means  a 
healthier  as  well  as  a  richer  people. 


150  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

The  eflFect  on  the  soil  is  shown  in  various  ways. — • 

Planting  and  cultivating  may  be  done  earlier  in  the 
spring,  w^hich  will  insure  to  crops  planted  in  due  season 
their  maturity  before  early  frosts.  Drainage  also  gives 
the  farmer  a  longer  time  in  which  to  do  his  spring  work. 
Drainage  holds  the  soil  open  to  the  circulation  of  the 
air,  so  that  oxygen  and  other  gases  may  act  in  preparing 
the  soil  for  the  plants.  Drainage  greatly  lessens  injury 
from  "  heaving."  In  Ohio  and  other  states,  where  the 
peculiar  clay  soils  greatly  expand  or  "  heave "  upon 
freezing,  causing  the  winter  wheat,  rye,  clover  plants, 
etc.,  to  be  broken  off  from  their  roots,  and  the  crops 
thus  injured,  drainage  removes  the  excess  of  water  and 
the  soils  do  not  expand  so  much. 

Not  the  least  among  the  benefits  of  drainage  is  that 
it  opens  the  soil  to  the  entrance  of  the  air  and  makes  it 
a  better  and  more  healthful  home  for  bacteria,  and  for 
plant  and  animal  life  in  general.  Drainage  adapts  soils 
to  a  greater  variety  of  crops,  and  a  rotation  of  several 
crops  is  known  to  be  more  profitable  than  the  continuous 
planting  to  one  crop.  Drainage  helps  to  bring  the  farm 
up  to  that  ideal  which  enables  us  to  grow,  under  system- 
atic rotation  plans,  those  crops  which  combine  to  make 
the  farm  the  most  profitable. 

Increase  of  certainty  and  quality  of  crops. — Poorly 
drained  lands  are  usually  low  lying,  and  are,  therefore, 
fairly  moist,  even  in  dry  years.  In  wet  years,  if  drained 
properly,  these  rich  lands  raise  superior  crops. 

A  more  profitable  use  of  fertilizers  is  brought  about  by 
draining  the  land  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  only  a 
proper  amount  of  capillary  water  in  the  soil  and  that 
there  are  healthy  crops  to  make  good  use  of  the  land. 
In  case  of  the  application  of  expensive  commercial 
fertilizers  to  the  land,  the  above  is  an  important 
consideration,  and  especially  so  in  case  of  crops  which 
require   a   large   amount   of   expensive   hand  labor   and. 


DRAINAGE  I5I 

which  must  yield  a  large  income  per  acre  to  pay  a  net 
profit. 

The  land  is  tilled  with  more  ease  and  with  better 
profits  if  the  excess  of  water  is  removed.  Draining  out 
narrow  sloughs,  low  places  inside  the  field,  low  areas 
adjacent  to  other  lands,  all  benefit  the  farm  lands.  The 
fields  can  be  made  more  nearly  rectangular,  which  will 
admit  of  easier  access  and  of  more  systematic  methods 
of  rotation  and  cultivation.  All  parts  of  the  field  be- 
come sufficiently  dry  and  ready  for  cultivation  in  the 
spring  and  after  rains,  at  one  time,  thus  making  it  pos- 
sible to  employ  labor  economically  and  to  cultivate  the 
soil  at  a  time  when  its  tilth  will  receive  the  greatest 
beneficial  effect. 

Water  flowing  from  the  mouths  of  tile  drains  or  in 
open  drains  may  often  be  conducted  to  fields  or  barn- 
yards, there  to  be  a  source  of  water  for  live  stock,  or  to 
be  used  for  irrigating  field,  garden  or  orchard  crops. 

The  appointment  by  President  Roosevelt  of  a  commis- 
sion to  report  on  the  use  and  imiprovement  of  our  in- 
ternal waterways,  and  the  reclamation  of  wet  lands, 
may  lead  to  engineering  enterprise  in  drainage,  even 
more  gigantic  than  any  yet  undertaken  in  this  country. 
The  discussion  of  drainage  by  the  agricultural  and 
special  drainage  journals  of  America  demonstrates  the 
great  interest  our  farmers  are  taking  in  this  practical 
question.  The  making  of  open  ditches  has  passed  from 
the  stage  of  making  ditches  with  the  spade  to  one  of 
constructing  small  and  large  canals  and  dikes  by  means 
of  machinery.  The  making  of  underground  ditches  has 
rapidly  passed  from  the  making  of  covered  drains  by 
using  stone  or  boards,  to  drains  with  factory-made 
cylindrical  or  nearly  cylindrical  tiles  most  carefully 
placed  in  the  ground,  sometimes  by  means  of  tile-laying 
machinery.  In  some  states,  as  in  level,  wet  sections 
of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  there  are  numerous  tile  factories 


152  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

in  each  county,  and  the  farmers  there  have  gradually- 
laid  tiles  on  acre  after  acre  until  nearly  the  entire  wet 
area  is  underdrained,  transforming  both  the  agriculture 
and  the  sanitation  of  entire  counties.  While  machinery 
for  laying  tiles  has  been  highly  developed,  for  many 
conditions  the  spade  continues  to  be  the  chief  imple- 
ment in  opening  tile  drains. 

Injury  of  tiles  by  freezing. — In  the  southern  half  of  the 
United  States  there  is  no  danger  of  frost  injuring  tile 
drains.  In  the  extreme  northern  portions  of  the  country, 
however,  where  the  earth  sometimes  freezes  to  the  depth 
of  six  or  eight  feet,  the  question  often  arises  whether  tiles 
laid  two  to  five  feet  deep  will  be  ruined  by  the  frost. 
Where  an  outlet  can  be  secured  so  that  the  water  will 
run  freely  from  the  properly  laid  tiles,  there  is  little 
danger  that  sufficient  water  will  remain  in  them  to  break 
the  tiles  by  its  expansion  under  freezing.  Where  the 
outlet  must  be  very  low,  sometimes  beneath  the  water 
in  a  pond  or  stream,  the  tiles  may  be  full  of  water  when 
the  ground  freezes,  and  in  this  case  its  expansion  within 
the  tiles  may  cause  them  to  be  split.  This  may  also  occur 
in  case  the  tiles  have  not  been  laid  on  an  even  down- 
ward grade,  so  that  the  water  will  not  run  out  of  the 
low  sections  of  the  drain.  Likewise,  where  the  tiles 
have  been  laid  in  peaty  lands  which,  upon  drying  out, 
shrink  and  settle  more  in  some  areas  than  in  others, 
thus  making  the  line  of  grade  uneven,  freezing  may  work 
injury.  The  actual  places  on  record  where  freezing  of 
water  within  the  tiles  has  caused  them  to  crumble  down 
and  become  clogged  up  and  useless,  are,  indeed,  very 
few,  even  in  states  as  far  north  as  Minnesota.  No  doubt, 
in  many  cases,  where  the  water  upon  freezing  expands 
within  the  tile  causing  it  to  break,  it  simply  cracks  length- 
wise, or  a  number  of  cracks  are  produced  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  pieces  all  remain  in  position.  The 
expansion  of  the  ice  does  not  usually  cause  the  pieces  to 


DRAINAGE  153 

Spread  far  enough  apart  to  allow  them  to  fall  in  and 
obstruct  the  water.  They  are  held  in  position  by  the 
weight  placed  upon  them  by  the  surrounding  earth  as 
the  stones  in  an  arch  are  held. 

Drainage  legislation. — Along  with  the  development  of 
the  theory  of  drainage,  of  drainage  machinery  and  of 
drainage  work,  there  has  been  a  development  of  laws 
relating  to  the  subject.  Since  the  flood  water  and  the 
drainage  water  run  from  farm  to  farm,  it  ofttimes  hap- 
pens that  one  man  cannot  drain  his  land  unless  his 
neighbor  allows  him  an  outlet,  or,  perhaps,  joins  with 
him  in  making  a  system  of  drainage  including  the  wet 
lands  of  both  farms.  In  other  cases,  numerous  farms 
are  concerned  in  one  system  of  drainage.  A  common 
ditch  may  be  required  to  carry  oflf  the  water  from  the 
several  farms.  This  requires  concerted  action,  since  it 
is  unfair  that  one,  or  even  several,  of  the  number  inter- 
ested should  bear  the  large  initial  expense  which  should 
be  shared  by  all  who  are  benefited. 

Most  of  those  states  in  which  considerable  drainage 
is  needed  have  devised  laws  under  which  a  majority  of 
the  landowners  in  any  area  needing  drainage  can,  under 
the  law,  bring  about  co-operation  of  all  landowners  in 
the  payment  of  the  expense  of  general  drains.  These 
laws  are  made  to  operate  through  township  or  county 
officers,  usually  through  the  boards  of  county  super- 
visors or  commissioners.  Those  landowners  who  de- 
sire the  drain  may  present  a  petition  to  the  board,  which 
decides  whether  the  project  shall  be  undertaken,  and,  if 
so,  arranges  to  carry  forward  «the  work  and  assesses  the 
costs  to  the  respective  landowners.  The  law  designates 
that  a  certain  area  be  surveyed,  and,  if  it  be  found  prac- 
ticable, drained  under  the  drainage  law.  Generally  the 
board  is  required  to  appoint  viewers,  and  to  supply  them 
with  the  services  of  a  competent  drainage  engineer. 
These  viewers  take  into  consideration  the  need  of  the 


154  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

drainage,  and  after  having  made  a  plan  of  the  drains, 
estimate  its  cost  and  apportion  the  cost  to  the  various 
persons  interested.  In  some  cases  the  apportionment 
of  the  cost  is  left  until  the  drains  are  complete  and  the 
actual  cost  is  known.  The  apportionment  of  the  entire 
cost  is  made  among  all  the  farmers  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  benefits.  In  rare  cases  the  construction  of  a 
large  drain  injures  a  portion  of  the  land  through  which 
it  passes,  and  in  such  cases  damages  may  be  allowed. 
In  cases  where  individual  landowners  feel  that  they 
have  been  assessed  for  more  than  their  just  share  of 
the  cost  of  the  drains,  they  may  appeal  to  the  board  of 
county  commissioners  for  a  reduction.  In  case  of  fail- 
ing to  receive  what  they  consider  justice,  they  may  appeal 
to  the  proper  court,  which,  upon  hearing  both  sides, 
makes  its  decision  as  to  the  actual  amount  of  the  total 
expense  which  the  appealing  landholder  shall  be  re- 
quired to  pay. 

As  a  rule,  the  board  of  county  commissioners  has 
charge  of  the  construction  of  the  drain.  They  may 
revise  the  plan  of  the  engineer,  readjust  the  findings  of 
the  viewers,  as  to  the  boundaries  of  the  drainage  district 
and  as  to  the  proportion  of  assessment  against  each 
benefited  landholder.  In  many  counties  the  boards  of 
county  commissioners  issue  bonds  with  which  to  pay 
the  expenses  of  the  drainage,  and  when  the  drain  is 
completed,  require  the  proper  county  officer  to  assess 
the  entire  cost  of  the  drain  upon  the  owners  of  the 
benefited  land.  Where  the  drain  is  constructed  under 
a  contractor  the  board  of  .county  commissioners  appoints 
the  county  engineer  or  some  other  competent  person  to 
superintend  the  work  of  the  contractor,  under  a  properly 
written  contract  and  specifications,  that  the  work  may  be 
thoroughly  carried  out.  In  many  counties  the  board  of 
commissioners  employs  a  superintendent  of  construction 
and  supplies  him  with  laborers  and  materials.     In  some 


DRAINAGE  155 

cases  the  county  assumes  the  entire  or  partial  cost  of 
drains,  and  in  other  cases  the  state  furnishes  part  or  all 
of  the  means  with  which  to  carry  out  a  large  amount  of 
drainage  work.  Wherever  the  county  or  state  furnishes 
part  of  the  means  for  constructing  the  drains,  it  wisely 
retains  at  least  partial  supervision  of  the  expenditures 
and  of  the  future  maintenance  of  the  drains. 

Private  drains. — Legal  questions  often  arise  in  making 
private  drains.  As  a  general  legal  proposition,  no  one 
has  a  right  to  interfere  with  natural  drainage  in  a  way 
that  shall  injure  the  property  of  another.  Thus,  no 
farmer  has  the  right  to  discharge  the  water  from  a  drain 
upon  the  land  of  another  in  such  a  way  that  the  flooding 
of  his  lands  shall  be  increased  or  occur  at  a  dififerent 
time,  or  in  a  different  place,  than  would  naturally  occur. 
Neither  has  one  person  the  right  to  make  embankments 
to  prevent  his  own  lands  flooding  and  thereby  retard  the 
water  flowing  naturally  from  the  fields  of  his  neighbor. 
Bitter  litigation  and  neighborhood  quarrels  of  a  most 
disagreeable  and  disastrous  kind  often  arise  from  the 
^  failure  of  neighbors  to  adjust  properly  these  matters  of 
drainage  in  a  friendly  and  peaceable  manner.  In  matters 
of  this  kind,  there  is  entirely  too  much  effort  to  get  the 
better  of  the  neighbor,  or  too  much  anxiety  lest  the 
neighbor  get  the  advantage.  It  is  far  wiser  to  con- 
cede much  more  than  is  fair  than  to  become  involved 
in  a  quarrel,  and  possibly  in  legal  difficulties,  which  will 
destroy  the  peace  of  the  neighborhood,  and  surely  cost 
both  parties  many  times  as  much  as  either  one  would 
have  had  to  sacrifice  in  effecting  a  peaceable  adjustment. 
Arbitration  is  becoming  much  more  popular  in  the  world, 
and  here  is  one  of  the  places  where  it  should  nearly 
always  prevail  in  case  of  disagreement.  Persons  asked 
to  serve  as  arbitrators  in  difficult  matters  of  this  kind 
have  an  opportunity  to  do  a  patriotic  service,  not  only 
to  the  parties  involved,  but  to  the  neighborhood,  and 


156  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

they  should  courageously  accept  the  responsibility  and 
try  to  bring  about  an  adjustment  which  may  reasonably 
satisfy  both  parties.  Laws  encouraging,  or  almost  enforc- 
ing, arbitration  in  such  matters  would  be  largely  useful 
and  should  be  devised  and  enacted.  A  normal  public 
sentiment  which  would  almost  force  people  into  arbitra- 
tion would  make  for  harmony  and  civilization. 

SURVEYING  AND   MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES 

The  making  of  drains  is  an  engineering  problem  and 
the  theory  must  precede  the  practical  work.  The  plan 
should  be  carefully  devised,  that  the  work,  when  com- 
pleted, may  be  effective.  The  drains  should  be  so  located 
that  they  will  conduct  the  water  from  all  portions  of  the 
wet  areas.  They  should  be  placed  at  the  proper  depth, 
and  have  the  proper  grades,  so  that  the  water  will  run 
evenly  and  be  carried  rapidly  to  its  destination.  The 
number  of  drains  or  branch  drains  should  be  sufficient 
to  carry  off  the  surface  water.  They  should  be  placed 
at  that  depth  which  will  effectively  improve  the  soil, 
but  not  so  deep  as  to  make  the  construction  of  the 
drains  too  expensive. 

If  the  system  of  drainage  is  very  simple  and  the  slope 
of  the  land  ample  to  give  sufficient  fall,  the  plan  may 
be  easily  made.  In  many  such  cases  instruments  for 
measuring  and  leveling  are  not  necessary.  The  farmer's 
knowledge  of  the  land,  or  even  a  "  bird's-eye  "  survey 
may  be  sufficient.  In  other  cases,  the  system  may  be 
very  extensive,  the  grade  very  slight,  the  expense  large 
and  the  need  of  accuracy  imperative.  Here  the  assist- 
ance of  a  competent  drainage  engineer  with  his  measur- 
ing and  leveling  instruments,  and  his  methods  of  cal- 
culation should  be  employed.  He  should  have  a 
practical  knowledge  of  the  local  rainfall,  ability  to 
estimate  the  flood  water  which  must  be  taken  care  of, 


DRAINAGE 


157 


an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  character  of  the  sub- 
soil, experience  in  calculating  and  in  judging  what  size 
to  make  open  ditches  and  what  size  of  drain  tiles  to  use. 


Figure  57.    Surveyor's  transit. 


He  should  also  have  tactful  ability  to  deal  with  the 
parties  interested  in  co-operative  drainage,  and  this  is 
quite  as  much  needed  in  the  enterprise  as  his  technical 
knowledge. 


158 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Surveying  instruments. — In  planning  drainage  requir- 
ing the  services  of  a  competent  engineer,  a  number  of 
instruments  are  needed.  These  are  illustrated  in  various 
figures  accompanying  the  text.  Notes  under  the  figures 
describe  the  instruments  and  give  some  instructions  as 
to  their  use.     The  farmer  needs  to  know  more  of  the 


rigure  58  shows  a  20-inch  wye  level,  such  as  Is  used  by  engineers  for  rail- 
road surveying,  wagon  road  surveying  and  in  all  drainage  surveying  where 
great  accuracy  is  required.  The  instrument  is  mounted  on  a  tripod  and  the 
operator  spreads  the  legs  3  feet  apart,  more  or  less,  to  bring  the  telescope  even 
with  his  eye  when  slightly  stooping.  The  tripod  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the 
plate  A  is  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position.  Turn  the  telescope  so  that  it  rests 
above  two  opposite  thumb  screws,  as  B,  C.  With  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
turn  these  two  screws  both  toward  center  or  both  away  from  center,  until  the 
bubble  in  the  spirit  level  is  in  the  center  at  D.  Now  turn  the  telescope  at 
right  angles  to  its  former  position  so  as  to  be  above  the  other  two  thumb 
screws.  Turn  these  screws  until  the  bubble  indicates  that  the  telescope  is 
again  level.  It  is  wise  to  turn  the  instrument  the  second  time  over  B  and  C 
to  see  that  its  adjustment  is  level,  and  in  the  course  of  taking  levels  the  bulb 
should  frequently  be  inspected  and  leveled  up,  especially  if  the  tripod  is  not 
firmly  placed  on  solid  ground,  or  if  the  tripod  or  the  instrument  has  been  in 
the  least  jarred  out  of  its  position.  Tlie  use  of  the  set  screw  at  E  is  to  re- 
strain the  telescope  from  revolving  and  the  alignment  screw  at  F  is  used  to 
make  slight  changes  in  revolving  the  telescope  in  line  with  a  leveling  rod  or 
with  a  desired  line  of  stakes  upon  which  levels  are  to  be  taken. 


engineer's  technique,  that  he  may  better  understand  th^, 
work  and  that  he  may  be  more  liberal  in  employing  the 
trained  engineer  when  needed. 

The  transit  is  necessary  in  planning  large  drainage 
enterprises.  It  is  used  in  locating  the  line  and  in  deter- 
mining the  angles  at  which  branch  lines  leave  the  main 
lines.  The  use  of  the  transit  is  not  very  difficult  for  one 
who  has  a  knowledge  of  algebra,  geometry  and  trigo- 


DRAINAGE 


159 


nometry,  and  even  persons  with  only  a  knowledge  of 
arithmetic,  with  a  moderate  amount  of  technical  instruc- 
tion, can  make  use  of  it  to  a  limited  extent.  It  is  an 
instrument  for  the  use  of  the  engineer,  however,  rather 
than  for  the  use  of  those  who  are  not  specialists  in  the 
line  of  surveying.  Transits,  such  as  professional  en- 
gineers use,  are  scientific  optical  instruments  of  a  high 
order  and  are  expensive,  costing  about  $200.  There  are 
cheaper  instruments,  and  also  less  expensive  combined 
forms  of  level  and  transit  for  the  use  of  farmers.  These 
cost  about  $50.  The  farmer  who  has  been  well  trained 
in  an  agricultural  school,  or  who  has  otherwise  learned 
the  use  of  surveying  instruments,  can  do  his  own  work 
in  small  drainage  projects  cheaply  and  well.  By  means 
of  the  transit  a  permanent  record  may  be  made,  showing 
on  a  plat  of  the 
land  through 
which  drains 
pass  the  exact 
location  of  the 
drainage  lines. 
In  most  cases 
such  records 
and  plats  may 
be  made  from 
measurements 
without  the  use 
of  a  transit. 

A    map    or 

drawing  of  the  system  should  be  made,  locating  section 
corners  of  the  government  survey,  where  that  is  prac- 
ticable. Points  or  lines  from  which  to  measure  the 
various  lines  of  the  drains,  and  their  point  of  junction 
and  their  extremities,  may  be  definitely  located  in  relation 
to  certain  natural  objects  or  artificial  monuments,  as 
the  lines  subdividing  the  section,  or  monuments  mark- 


•i  • 

Leveling  instrument  on  which  sights  are  attached 
common  pocket,  or  better,  a  mason's  spirit  level.  T, 
screw;  H,  hinge. 


Figure  59, 


i6o 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


ing  the  corners  of  farms  and  recorded  in  a  drawing  or 
drainage  map.  By  placing  the  distances  and  angles  on 
this  map,  any  underdrain  can  be  located  at  any  point 
at  any  future  time,  by  again  measuring  from  the  given 
points  and  base  lines.     (See  Transit  in  Figure  58.) 

Leveling  instruments  are  even  more  generally  useful 
and  necessary,  in  planning  and  constructing  drains,  than 
the  transit.  Very  often  they  are  necessary  to  aid  in 
getting  the  general  level  of  the  land  so  as  to  determine 

w^here  to  locate  the 
drains  so  as  best  to 
reach  v^et  areas  and 
carry  off  the  w^ater  in 
the  most  effective  man- 
ner w^ith  the  minimum 
cost  of  construction. 
For  example,  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  North  a  drainage 
engineer  v^as  employed 
to  lay  out  a  general  plan 
of   drainage.     The   land 

Figure  60.    Mason's  level  placed  on  tripod  and    waS  SO  UCarlv  IcVCl  in  an 

supplied   with   sights.  -^ 

area  40  by  100  miles  that, 
with  his  assisting  engineers,  he  surveyed  east  from  the 
Red  River  of  the  North  through  this  district,  taking 
the  level  at  every  section  corner  and  also  at  half  mile 
posts  along  all  east  and  west  section  lines.  When  all 
this  had  been  done,  the  figures  representing  the  height 
of  each  point  above  datum  plane*  were  recorded  on  a 
map  of  the  entire  territory.  By  examining  these  figures, 
the  engineer  was  able  to  map  out  all  the  low  areas 
through   which   large   drainage   canals   were   needed   to 


*A  datum  plane  is  an  imaginary  level  plane  used  as  a  basis  for 
comparing-  the  heights  of  points  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
It  is  usually  assumed  100  or  1,000  feet  below  some  stated  point  or 
sea  level. 


DRAINAGE 


i6i 


give  an  outlet  for  smaller  canals  and  for  needed  farm 
and  roadside  ditches. 

A  general  map  thus  made  was  published  in  a  pamphlet 
and  has  been  of  great  use  to  the  counties,  townships  and 
farmers  co-operating  in  the  drainage  of  these  lands. 
A  copy  of  a  portion  of  this  map  is  shown  in  Figure  70, 
page  167.  In  some  low  areas  of  much  less  size,  even  in 
single  fields,  it  is  necessary  to  take  levels  at  various 
points,  or,  as  the  engineer  says,  "  cross  section  the  field," 
so  as  to  map  the 
contour  or  ele- 
vation of  the  en- 
tire area  and  thus 
decide  where 
drains  are  neces- 
sary and  prac- 
tical. The  level  is 
a  necessity  also 
in  determining 
the  rates  of  fall 
and  the  grades 
that  should  be 
given  to 
ditch  or 
drain  where 
grades  are 
nearly  level  that 
they  must  be 
very 


the 
tile 
the 


so 


Figure  61  represents  a  simple  form  of  home-made  leveling  in- 
strument which  is  useful  where  great  accuracy  is  not  required. 
P  is  a  tube  of  tin  or  of  gas  pipe.     At  either  end  of  the  tube  a 
glass  tube,   G,  a  few  inches  long,  is  inserted.     Colored  water 
is  poured  in  so  as  to  rise  nearly  to  the  corks  in  the  tubes.    A 
front  and  a  back  sight,  as  SS,  or  another  form  of  sight,  may 
be  adjusted  so  as  to  be  easily  placed  level  with  the  top  of  the 
colored  liquid  in  either  glass  tube.     At  H  is  shown  a  form  of 
joint  in  the  stem  connecting  the  level  with  the  tripod.     With 
this  the    instrument    can    be    placed   so    nearly    level    that    the 
water  stands  at  the  point  desired  in  each  glass  tube.     This  level 
does  not  require  adjusting,  but  it  is  not  accurate  for  long  dis- 
-        tances  on  drains  which  are  nearly  level,   though  in  the  hands 
accurately    of  a  careful  man  it  may  be  found  useful  under  circumstances 
,  _  ,       where  a  better  instrument  Is  not  available. 

made.        It      is 

often  needed,  while  constructing  the  drain,  to  see 
that  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  at  the  right  depth 
at  the  various  points.  For  draining  small  areas  it  is 
often  unnecessary  to  use  an  expensive  instrument,  as 
the  home-made  instruments  shown  in  Figures  59-61, 
may  serve  the  purpose. 


1 62 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Chains,  tapes,  rods,  stakes,  etc. — The  surveyor's  chain, 
folded,  is  shown  in  Figures  63  and  64.  Chains  are  usually 
four  rods  (66  feet),  sometimes  100  feet  in  length. 
The  surveyor's  band  chain  of  steel  is  shown  in  Figure 
62.  It  is  now  commonly  used  by  engineers,  being  made 
lighter  and  more  accurate  than  the  steel  chain. 

Note  books  and  blank  forms. — All  measurements  and 
surveys  should  be  accurately  recorded  in  such  form  that 
they  will  not  only  be  useful  in 
planning  and  constructing  the 
drain,  but  will  serve  as  a  per- 
manent record.  If  the  drain  does 
not  work  properly,  some  fault  in 
the  figuring  or  calculations  may  be 
found,  in  which  case  the  records 
will  be  useful.  Should  the  drain 
at  any  time  get  out  of  repair,  the 
original  notes  may  be  useful  in  its 
repair  or  reconstruction.  Notes  of 
the  location  of  underdrains  are 
especially   valuable   as   permanent 

gra^dSd''eitl?er'in^'?St"or'*lS     ^CCOrds     for    USC     whcU     wishiug    tO 

Kl;cheV%'u?§i?ireSireiJ   ^ocatc  obstructious  in  tile  drains. 

Sfnd?efslSr?o%Seused'on     FigUrC   8l    givCS   a   form    tO   bc    USCd 
chains.     It  is  not  so  convenient     -^      «^^^«J: j.1.  _      1„     ^1        x    1 

as  the  link  chain,  but  Is  accu-   m    recordmg   the    levels   taken    m 

rate,    even  serving   as   a  standard     /•      j  •  j  i        i         j  r  .  i 

with  which  to  compare  the  link  nnamg  the  Dcst  coursc  lor  the  oro- 

chaln.    that    its    length   may    oc-  -       ^       .  ,-  ,  , 

casionaiiy   be   tested,    and.   If  poscd   drain,   as  wcll  as  the   datc 

necessary,   corrected.  ^  , 

used  in  making  calculations  for  its 
grade  and  depth.  Furthermore,  in  making  the  drain, 
the  level  is  used  in  checking  for  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at 
various  points  along  its  course.  An  indexed  notebook, 
4x6  inches,  ruled  as  in  Figure  82,  is  a  good  place  to  keep 
the  original  notes,  including  the  calculations. 

Drainage  plats  show  methods  of  making  drainage 
maps.  A  drainage  map  of  a  portion  of  the  valley  of  the 
Red  River  of  the  North  is  shown  in  Figure  70.     The 


DRAINAGE 


163 


figures  at  the  government  section  corners, 
giving  elevations,  show  the  very  level  char- 
acter of  the  land.  The  central  portion  is  a 
great  swamp  area  six  by  fifteen  miles  in 
extent.  The  proposed  ditch,  A  B,  collects 
a  "  lost  river,"  which  was  spread  out  through 
the  low  area  into  a  large  swamp.  The 
proposed  ditches,  C  D,  E  F  and  G  H,  are 
designed  to  serve  as  main  channels  to  carry 


Figure  63.  Surveyor's  chain  folded.  Very  desirable  form 
of  chain  in  weeds,  across  streams,  around  curves,  and  for 
general  work.  Often  incorrect  in  length,  and  for  accurate 
work  should  be  compared  with  steel  tape. 

the  water  toward  the  Red  River.  Tributary 
to  these  main  ditches  are  roadside  ditches 
along  the  section  lines  and  ditches  across 
some  farms.  These  farm  ditches  are  here 
usually  made  broad  and  flat  with  reversible 
road  machines.  Into  these  roadside  and  farm 
ditches,  dead  furrows  are  made  to  lead  at 
frequent  intervals,  by  so  laying  out  the  plow 
lands  as  to  place  the  final  furrows  in  favor- 
able places  to  lead  the  water  ofiF  the  fields 
and  into  the  field,  roadside  and  main 
ditches.  In  case  of  low  places  a  few 
inches  to  a  foot  below  the  general  surface 
and  from  a  rod  in  diameter  to  many  acres 
in  area,  they  are  drained  by  special  ditches  veyor's  chain  partly 

.  .  ,.,  ,.r  folded. 

mto   the   farm   ditches.     It   is   often   neces- 
sary in  late  fall  or  in  early  spring  to  open  out  all  drains 
by  removing  weeds  and  dust,  or  earth,  that  has  blown 


164  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

into  the  ditches  or  has  been  washed  in,  that  the  water 
may  move  quickly  out  of  all  low  places,  thus  allowing 
^  the   soil   to   dry   out   for   early   planting   in 

11^  that  cold  climate. 

In  Figure  /^2,  dotted  lines  show  tile  drains 
on  a  large  flat  area,  in  a  moderately  open 
subsoil,  in  a  region  where  the  rainfall  is  30 
inches  per  annum.  In  case  wet  years  show 
the  need  in  given  areas,  additional  drains 
pin^Si^  to  ma^rk  ^^"  ^^  ^^^^  bctwcen  thosc  providcd  in  this 
chaSng  ^^ofe?  ^  plsLU.  At  A  and  B  are  tile  drains  under 
^'^^-  the    center    of    the    roadbed     in     the     flat 

area.     These  connect  with  the  main  tile  ditch  at  X. 

Figure  73  shows  the  plan  used  in  draining  a  tract  of 
480  acres  in  Iroquois  county,  Illinois, 
which  is  generally  level,  but  was,  be- 
fore drainage,  diversified  to  some  extent  by 
ponds  which  contained  water  during  six 
months  of  the  year.  The  grades  upon 
which  the  drains  were  laid  were,  in  some 
cases,  one-half  inch  to  100  feet,  varying 
from  this  to  two  inches  to  100  feet.  The 
object  of  drainage  was  to  fit  the  land  at  a 
minimum  of  expense  for  the  production  of 
hay  and  grains  of  various  kinds.  It  should 
be  observed  that  the  drains  were  staked 
out  in  a  systematic  manner.  As  shown  on 
the  plan  (Figure  y^),  each  line  is  designated 
by  some  name  by  which  it  is  distinguished 
from  others.  Its  length,  as  well  as  its  junc- 
tion with   other  lines,   is   indicated  by  the  mSt"ro®d%nf i^t 

...  ,  ,  ,  .    .  .  sections  alternately 

Station  number  or  the  number  of  feet  from  red  and  white. 
the  outlet  point,  in  each  case.     This  plan 
also  illustrates  various  methods  of  location  and  arrange- 
ment of  drains  ordinarily  required.  The  drains  of  this  tract 
have  been  in  successful  operation  for  fourteen  years,  with 


DRAINAGE 


i6S 


no  repairs  or  stoppages  of  any  kind 
during  that  time.  The  land  is  an 
open  black  soil  with  joint  clay  sub- 
soil which  drains  quite  readily.  The 
final  outlets,  as  shown,  are  open 
ditches  leading  to  the  larger  water 
course. — After  C.  G.  Elliott. 

Machinery  and  implements. — 
Much  improvement  in  machinery 
and  implements  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  drains  is  constantly 
taking  place.  There  are  many  situ- 
ations in  which  machinery  cannot 
be  economically  employed  and  hand 
labor   must    be    resorted   to.     Thus 


in    .peaty 


Figure  68.  A. 
grade  stake  to  set 
beside  the  ditch.  B. 
hub  to  be  driven 
with  its  top  even 
with  the  surface  of 
the  ground  beside 
the  tall  stake.  A, 
to  serve  as  a  con- 
stant point  upon 
which  to  rest  the 
leveling  rod  in  cases 
where  great  accu- 
racy  is   required. 


lands  where  roots  ob- 
struct the  drainage 
plow  the  earth  must 
be  thrown  out  of  the 
open  ditch  by  means 
of  hand  tools.  Like- 
wise in  lands  where 
stones  are  encoun 
tared  and  in  short 
ditches  where  the  in- 
troduction of  ma- 
chinery is  not  profit- 
able only  hand  tools 
are  practicable.  But 
in  the  free  soils  of 
most  bottom  lands 
of  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi valley  and 
other  localities, 
machinery,  operated 
even  by  steam,  may 


Q^J) 


Figure  67.  A,  side  view  of 
leveling  rod  closed  up,  for  tak- 
ing measurements  of  points  not 
far  below  the  line  of  sight.  B. 
front  view  of  rod  closed  up. 
When  the  rod  is  closed  the 
figures  are  read  on  the  front 
side  through  the  hole  in  the 
disk.  Figures  show  the  height 
to  which  the  disk  has  been 
raised  to  be  in  the  line  of 
sight  with  the  eye  at  the  back 
end  of  the  telescope  and  with 
the  horizontal  cross-wire.  C, 
rod  opened  up.  Tlie  disk  is 
now  set  at  the  top  of  the  rod, 
and  the  adjusting  done  with 
the  set  screw  at  D.  Figures 
are  now  read  nn  the  side  of 
the  upper  section  at  the  up- 
per end  of  the  lower  section 
of  the  rod  and  from  top  down. 


by  horses  or  oxen  or 
be  effectively  used. 


i66 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Drain  tiles. — Extensive  experience  in  America  has  led 
to  the  adoption  of  the  cylindrical  drain  tile.  In  Figure  74 
are  shown  drain  tiles  of  the  various  sizes,  from  2  inches 
to  12  inches  in  diameter.  Other  forms  have  been  recom- 
mended  at 
various  times, 
but  there  is 
apparently  no 
advantage  of 
these  forms 
over  the  cy- 
lindrical, while 
there  are  some 
manifest  disad- 
vantages. 
Straight  tiles, 
3  to  12  inches 
in  diameter, 
are  usually 
made  one  foot 
long,  but  occa- 
sionally in  two- 
foot  lengths ; 
while  12  to  24- 
inch  tiles  are 
made  in  two- 
foot  lengths.  Tiles  with  a  shoulder  (as  shown  in  Figure 
75),  made  like  sewer  pipes,  are  manufactured  in  two-foot 
lengths,  of  all  sizes. 

Drain  tiles  are  made  of  clay  similar  to  that  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  ordinary  brick.  The  clay  or  mixture 
of  clay  and  sand  must  be  of  a  nature  to  "  burn  "  under 
high  heat  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  tiles  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  moisture  and  frost,  they  will  re- 
main intact  and  not  scale  nor  crumble.  In  nearly  all 
parts  of  America  where  drainage  has  been  needed,  clays 


Figure  69.  Map  of  drains.  A  simple  plan  of  mapping  to 
record  the  location  of  a  tile  drain  and  its  branches,  giving  the 
lengths  of  tlie  lines  and  the  angles  of  divergence  is  shown 
in  this  figure.  Tlie  location  of  outlets  and  of  the  points  of  in- 
tersection of  tile  drains  may  also  be  shown  on  a  map  by  means 
of  measurements  from  the  sides  of  the  farm  or  from  other  per- 
manent points.  In  some  cases  it  is  practicable  to  mark  an  in- 
tersection of  drains  by  a  permanent  monument,  as  by  a  large 
stone  nearly  buried. 


DRAINAGE 


167 


have  been  found  which  can  be  manufactured  into  good 
tiles.  The  manufacture  of  drain  tiles  requires  consider- 
able skill  as  well  as  a  due  amount  of  business  ability. 
Some  experimentation  is  necessary  in  making  drain  tiles 
from  any  untried  bed  of  clay.  Chemical  analysis  is  a 
general  guide  as  to  whether  the  clay  is  of  a  suitable 


Figure  70.     Portion  of  a  drainage  map. 


nature  to  "  burn  "  and  not  be  broken  to  pieces  by  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  nor  by  the  freezing  of  the  water 
absorbed  in  the  body  of  the  burnt  tile.  It  is  always 
wise  to  ship  some  of  the  clay  to  a  factory  already  estab- 
lished and  have  it  tested,  with  a  view  of  finding  methods 
of  preparing  and  burning  it,  before  going  to  the  expense 
of  building  a  factory  beside  a  given  clay  bed.  Very  often 
it  is  necessary  to  mix  together  the  surface  soil  and  a 
layer  of  clay  lower  down.  In  other  cases,  a  layer  of 
mixed  sand  and  clay  found  near  at  hand,  when  put  with 
the  clay  from  the  main  layer,  will  give  a  mixture  of  the 


1 68 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


HfLL 


right  quality.  In  still  other  cases,  a  mixture  of  pure 
sand  with  the  clay  is  an  advantage.  All  this  experi- 
menting incurs  expense  and  should  be  done  by  persons 
who  have  a  knowledge  of  the  business. 

Often  tile  factories  have  been  built  where  it  has  been 
found  impracticable  to  make  good  tiles  from  the  avail- 
able clay,  and  thus  a  serious  loss  has  been  incurred, 
both  to  the  promoters  of  the  factory,  and  to  the  farmers 
who  need,  in  their  vicinity,  a  factory  from  which  they  can 

get  tiles  at  a 
reasonable  cost 
and  without  the 
expense  of  long 
railroad,  water 
or  wagon  trans- 
portation. Tile 
factories  prop- 
erly inaugu- 
rated and  oper- 
h  a  V  e 
usually  been 
profitable,  and  there  are  many  new  sections  in  need  of 
factories  to  supply  drain  tiles  with  which  to  improve  the 
large  areas  of  wet  lands.  In  some  sections  of  Minnesota, 
for  example,  the  farmers  buy  tiles  from  factories  so  far 
distant  that  the  cost  of  railway  transportation  is  greater 
than  the  cost  of  the  tiles  at  the  factory. 

Cost  of  drain  tiles. — Under  the  conditions  of  labor  at 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  three-inch  and 
four-inch  drain  tiles  have  cost,  at  the  factories  where 
large  quantities  are  made  under  favorable  conditions, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $9  and  $13,  respectively,  per 
thousand  feet.  The  table  on  page  169  shows,  relatively, 
the  average  cost,  weight,  etc.,  of  drain  tiles,  as  given  by  a 
manufacturing  firm  near  Elgin,  111.,  for  the  several  sizes 
ordinarily  made  from  3  to  15  inches  in  diameter. 


Figure  71.     Drain  through  pond,   with  lateral  on  right  to  in 
tercept  seepage  water  from  hillside  and  another  on  left  to  drain     a  t  C  d 
a  flat  area. 


Pnc^ 

DRAINAGE 
list  of  drain 

tile 

I 

Diameter 

Price 

Branches, 

Area 

Weight 

inside 

per 

each, 

in 

per  foot, 

measure 

1000  feet 

cents 

inches 

pounds 

3 

$10.00 

12 

7 

5 

Si 

12.50 

14 

9h 

Si 

4 

16.00 

15 

m 

7 

5 

22.00 

20 

19 

9 

6 

30.00 

25 

28 

12 

7 

40.00 

25 

38 

15 

8 

50.00 

30 

50 

18 

10 

75.00 

40 

78§ 

24 

12 

130.00 

80 

113 

32 

IS 

200.00 

95 

178 

46 

169 


15  in.  tile  2  feet  lengths;  all  other  in  1  foot  lengths. 

These  figures  were  only  general,  and  were  subject  to 
a  10  per  cent  discount,  and  since  the  weight  of  the  tiles 
depends  upon  the  character  or  specific  gravity  of  the 
clay  from  which  the  tiles  are  made  and  also  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  they  must  not  be 
taken  to  apply  to  particular  cases.  Where  one  wishes 
to  figure  the  cost  of  transportation  on  tiles  from  any 
given  factory,  he  should  learn  the  exact  weight  of  the 
tiles  of  that  particular  brand  or  make.  In  sending  some 
distance  for  the  tiles,  quotations  should  be  secured  from 
the  railway  or  water  transportation  company  for  the  rate 
per  ton  for  freight ;  or  the  diflferent  factories  bidding  on 
bills  of  tiles  should  be  asked  to  quote  prices,  including 
the  freight,  at  the  farmer's  home  station. 

Quality  of  drain  tiles. — There  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  quality  of  drain  tiles  from  different  factories,  and 
even  of  the  individual  tiles  from  the  same  factory  or  kiln. 
In  ordering,  one  should  buy  by  sample,  or  on  the  guar- 
antee of  a  reputable  firm.  Where  the  purchaser  can  visit 
the  factory,  judgment  can  be  passed  on  the  quality  of  the 
tiles.  They  should  be  straight  and  square  on  the  ends 
so  as  to  come  close  together  in  the  ditch.  When  two 
tiles  are  knocked  together,  they  should  have  a  clear  ring. 
Cracks  in  a  hard  tile  are  objectionable,  but  much  worse 


170 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


is  the  quality  of  scaling  or  crumbling.  The  presence 
of  lumps  or  flakes  of  lime  which  will  slack  when  wet, 
causes  tiles  to  disintegrate  and  become  worthless.  Ques- 
tionable tiles  may  be  tested  by  placing  them  where  they 

can  be  partially 
covered  by 
water  during 
winter  and  al- 
lowed to  freeze 
and  thaw  re- 
peatedly. Tiles 
that  crumble 
by  springtime 
when  treated 
in  this  manner 
are  not  suited 
to  tile  draining, 
especially  in  a 
cold  climate. 
The   best 

Figure  72,     System  of  tile  drains  oa  a  160 -acre  farm.  j       •         .-i 

dram  tiles  are 
thoroughly  vitrified  throughout,  showing  that  there  has 
been  some  fusing  or  melting  of  the  clay  under  the  in- 
tense heat  of  the  kiln.  Many  manufacturers  glaze  their 
tiles,  just  as  the  old-fashioned  stone  milk  crock  was 
glazed,  by  placing  salt  in  the  kiln.  If  the  tile  is  properly 
burned,  glazing  adds  little  or  nothing  to  its  value,  though 
the  cost  is  inconsiderable.  The  fear  entertained  by  some 
that  glazing  retards  the  flow  of  water  through  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tile  into  the  drain  tile,  is  not  well  founded. 
Little  water  goes  through  the  body  of  any  properly  made 
drain  tile.  There  is  ample  room  for  the  water  to  seep 
through  between  the  ends  of  the  tiles,  and  practically  all 
of  it  enters  at  these  places.  It  is  also  proven  that  nearly 
all  the  water  enters  the  tile  at  the  lower  half  of  the 


DRAINAGE 


171 


Figure  73.     Map  showing  the  drainage  of  480  acres  of  land  in  IroQuois  county.  111., 
on  which  69,700  feet  of  drain  tile  were  laid  3  and  4  feet  deep. —Elliott. 

cylinder.  Only  that  water  which  falls  immediately  over 
the  drain,  as  a  rule,  percolates  down  through  from  the 
upper  side.     Water  from  rain  percolates  directly  down- 


172 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


ward  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  surface  of 
the    ground    water,    and    then    seeps    sidewise    into    the 


Figure   74.     Common   drain   tiles. 

stream  running  through  the  bottoms  of  the  openings 
through  the  row  of  tiles.  Since  the  ground  water  out- 
side of  the  tiles  is  little  higher  than  that  inside,  the  seep- 
age movement  is  nearly  horizontal. 

Survey  for  Construction 

While  the  general  inspection  of  the  land  referred 
to  on  a  previous  page  might  result  in  a  choice  of  the 
approximate  location  of  the  main  drain  and  its 
branches,  it  is  necessary,  on  nearly  level  land,  to 
attend  to  the  details  for  the  exact  location  of  the  line 
of  the  ditch.  Where  a  slough  or  hollow  with  gentle 
jslope    is    to    be    drained,    it    is    often    wise    to     supple* 


Figure  75.     Union  tiles. 


ment  the  "bird's-eye"  survey  with  a  series  of  levels  taken 
at  intervals  of  50  or  100  feet  along  the  proposed  line  of 
the  ditch.  In  some  simple  cases  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  determine  the  height  of  the  land  at  either  end  of 


DRAINAGE 


173 


the  ditch  and  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at  these  two  points. 
Where  the  line  is  long  and  there  is  a  variation  in  the 
slope  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  however,  it  is  better 
to  take  a  level  at  each  stake  placed  every  50  to  100  feet 
alongside  the  line  of  the  proposed  drain.     A  line  of  levels 


Figure  76     Collared  drain  tiles  or  sewer  pipes. 


thus  taken  and  figured  to  express  the  height  above  datum, 
as  will  be  explained  later  on,  will  serve  as  a  basis  for 
locating  the  exact  line  and  depth  of  the  proposed  ditch. 
From  the  first  line  of  stakes  where  the  levels  were  taken, 
other  levels  may  be  taken  at  points  on  either  side.  A 
new  line  with  slight  or  considerable  deviation  from  the 
first  line  may  be  projected  here  or  there,  and  by  placing 
stakes  along  the  new  line  and  taking  several  levels,  its 
practicability  may  be  compared  with  the  first  location. 
In  this  way  the  best  place  for  the  main  drain  may  be 


Figure  77.     Branched  collared  tiles. 


accurately  determined  in  low  areas  where  the  problem  is 
a  comparatively  simple  one. 

It  is  generally  wise  to  have  open  ditches  follow  the 
lowest  levels.     This  is  especially  true  in  the  northern 


174 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


lO'paa- 


JC  16 :lt  LA. 


i£&a ana. 


Ida  .,  If  \7 . ,  If  ajt. 


I£!ka IC  13 iCUb 


States,  where  snow  and  ice  accumulate  in  open  ditches, 
often  clogging  them  when  the  surface  water  begins 
to  run  in  the  early  spring.  At  the  points  where 
the  open  ditch  passes  through  slight  elevations  of  land, 
the  snow  accumulates  by  drifting  and  serves  as  a  dam 
to  prevent  the  early  movement  of  water,  whereas,  if  the 

drain  follows 
the  lowest 
level,  even  if 
the  ditch  is  full 
of  snow  and 
ice,  this  soon 
melts  or  is 
worn  away  by 
the  water  from 
the  higher  sur- 
faces which 
runs  over  it. 

A  cross  sec- 
tion or  contour 
survey  is  some- 
times necessary 
on   a   nearly 

Figure  78.     Elevations  on  a  flat  40-acre  field  used  In  locating  i-.* 

an  open  ditch  and  branch  tile  drains.  The  outlet  of  the  open  leVCl  area.  PlSf- 
drain,    which     Is    3.2     feet     belo.w    the    general    surface    at    A,  '  '^ 

was  taken  as   100   feet  above  datum,   and  all  figures  show  the  lire       '7^       rPDrC- 

elevation  of  the  respective  points  above  that  datum  plane.  i^v.-       /«->       xv-j^v.. 

sents  a  40-acre 
Here,  in  a  large  area  nearly  level  and  difficult 


icu ti\a iCi^ icir. 


ICA.3 |£1X 


tract. 


to  drain,  cross-sectioning  was  found  necessary,  that  the 
main  drain  might  be  placed  to  the  best  advantage  and 
that  the  least  expensive  method  of  laying  lateral  tile 
drains,  to  drain  the  low  spots,  might  be  devised.  This 
level  area  is  shown,  with  the  levels  taken  every  132  feet 
each  way. 

To  map  out  the  drains,  the  contour  map  may  be  used 
to  great  advantage.  In  many  cases,  the  drains  can  be 
laid  out  on  this  map  by  studying  the  map  alone ;   in  other 


DRAINAGE 


175 


cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  traverse  the  land  with  map 
in  hand,  and  by  inspecting  both  the  map  and  the  land, 
the  drains  may  be  placed  in  the  most  practicable  posi- 
tions. In  some  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  accompany 
the  general  inspection  of  the  map  and  land,  with  meas- 


Figure  79.  The  curved  contour  lines,  drawn  through  points  of  similar  eleyation, 
show  the  height  of  each  part  of  the  land  above  the  outlet  of  the  drain  A.  The  slope 
of  the  land  Is  at  right  angles  to  the  contour  line. 

urements  of  the  heights  of  points  along  the  trial  line? 
made  by  leveling  instruments,  and,  where  the  expense  is 
considerable,  it  will  be  wise  to  make  profiles  showing  the 
amount  of  digging  required  in  case  of  each  of  two  or 
more  ditches  projected  in  the  preliminary  surveys. 
Since  the  whole  system  of  drainage  must  be  taken  into 


176 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


consideration  at  one  time,  the  main  drain  and  the  prin- 
cipal laterals  cannot  be  fully  decided  upon,  either  as  to 


nr 


r~ 


Flguro  80.    A  "section,"  640  acres,  of  level  land  drained  by  surface  drains. 

location  or  depth,  until  the  laterals  have  been  sufficiently 
measured  or  inspected  to  determine  v^hether  they  will 
properly  discharge  water  into  their  mains.     In  case  of 


DRAINAGE  177 

the  tract  of  land  shown  in  Figures  78  and  79,  the  flood 
water,  coming  through  the  northeast  portion  of  the  farm 
from  farms  beyond,  necessitates  the  construction  of  a 
large  open  drain.  Since  water  does  not  flow  upon  the 
tract  from  any  other  watershed  of  considerable  extent, 
it  seemed  wise  to  make  all  other  drains  by  the  use  of 
the  tiles.  Thus,  while  the  slough  entering  the  drain  from 
the  northwest,  received  some  water  from  the  farm  be- 
yond, it  could  best  be  drained  by  means  of  three  lines  of 
tile  entering  the  open  drain.  The  method  of  placing  the 
drains  in  flat  areas  at  either  side  of  the  open  drains  in 
the  center  of  the  farm  illustrates  how  low  areas  may  be 
reached  with  economy  of  labor  and  tiles. 

Surface  drains  may  sometimes  be  used  to  supplement 
tile  drains,  in  countries  where  the  ground  freezes  deeply. 
Thus,  a  broad,  flat  ditch  thrown  out  with  the  reversible 
road  machine,  or  even  a  dead  furrow,  will  take  the  sur- 
face water  from  a  low  area  before  the  ground  is  suf- 
ficiently thawed  out  to  allow  it  to  percolate  downward 
to  the  under  drain,  and  thus  permit  this  low  area  to 
become  dry  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  surrounding 
areas. 

A  section  of  land  with  surface  drains. — In  Figure  80 
is  shown  a  section  of  land  drained  wholly  by  surface 
drains.  This  land  is  located  in  the  Valley  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  some  distance  from  a  stream.  Since 
there  is  a  fall  of  only  two  to  four  feet  per  mile  from  this 
land  to  the  river,  it  seemed  impracticable  to  use  tile 
drains  until  surface  drainage  was  first  thoroughly  tried. 
Besides,  this  land  is  not  often  too  wet  except  while  frost 
is  leaving  the  ground  in  the  spring.  This  region  being 
far  north  and  the  growing  season  short,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  best  results  to  get  the  crops  into  the  ground  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  possible. 

Figure  80  shows  the  general  level  character  of  this 
section  of  land.     The  drainagre  of  this  section  for  a  prac- 


178  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

tical  farm  illustrates  numerous  problems  in  the  drain- 
age of  very  flat,  dense  lands  in  a  cold  country.  The 
slough  or  lake,  F-G,  in  flood  times,  receives  a  large 
amount  of  water  from  the  south  which  overflows  its 
eastern  banks,  spreading  out  over  the  farm.  With  a 
large  canal  at  A-B,  this  flood  water  will  not  overflow 
upon  the  farm.  The  figures  giving  the  height  of  the 
several  "forty"  corners  as  compared  with  the  lowest 
point  at  the  middle  of  the  north  line,  taken  as  a  bench 
mark  at  100  feet  above  datum  plane,  and  the  contour 
lines,  dividing  areas  for  each  foot  in  height,  show  the 
direction  of  the  very  slight  grades  in  the  surface  of  this 
level  farm.  This  land  is  very  dense  and  water  per- 
colates slowly  downward.  Further,  the  level  character 
of  this  land  would  necessitate  tile  drains  being  laid 
with  such  a  slight  grade  that  large-sized  tiles  would 
be  required  to  carry  oflF  any  considerable  amount  of 
water,  and  the  cost  of  the  tiles  might  be  so  great  as  to 
make  their  use  impracticable,  besides  no  outlet  could  be 
secured  without  carrying  the  main  drain  some  distance 
to  the  river  through  lands  belonging  to  other  people. 
It  is  probable  that  this  land  would  be  materially 
benefited  by  tile  drainage,  and  ways  may  be  found  of 
arranging  the  outlets  for  tile  drains  by  extending  and 
deepening  the  large  canals  being  constructed  to  carry 
off  the  surface  waters.  Since  surface  drains  could  best 
be  used  in  this  instance,  it  was  necessary  to  construct 
them  so  as  to  have  them  work  rapidly  and  effectively 
very  early  in  the  season,  and  also  be  in  repair  to  remove 
the  excess  of  water  at  any  time  throughout  the  summer. 
This  land  being  nearly  level,  the  gentle  slopes  were 
easily  determined  when  water  was  seen  standing  on 
parts  of  the  land.  In  this  case,  cross-sectioning  with 
the  leveling  instruments  was  hardly  necessary,  because 
the  standing  and  the  flowing  water  had  shown  the  levels. 
That  the  reader  may  better  appreciate  the  very  level 


DRAINAGE  I 79 

character  of  the  main  part  of  this  section  of  land  and 
other  facts  complicating  its  drainage,  on  the  map  have 
been  placed  cross-section  notes  representing  levels  at 
points  80  rods  apart  each  way.  The  large  slough  shown, 
running  through  the  section  north  by  northwest,  is  really 
a  long,  narrow,  shallow  lake  without  outlet  except  over 
the  nearly  level  land  at  the  north  end.  To  drain  this, 
a  large  canal  A-B,  i6  feet  wide  and  8  to  lo  feet  deep, 
was  necessary,  and  was  constructed  running  from  the 
north  end  of  the  lake  a  mile  and  a  half  across  the  nearly 
level  country  to  a  river.  This  canal,  if  made  lo  feet 
deep,  would  be  sufficient  to  drain  the  lake  entirely,  thus 
transforming  it  from  a  shallow  lake,  which,  in  a  dry 
series  of  years,  becomes  entirely  dry,  into  a  hollow 
which  could  be  plowed  nearly  to  the  center  or  could  be 
used  for  meadow  or  pasture.  Tile  drains  could  then  be 
laid,  placing  the  main  outlets  in  this  large  drain. 

The  surface  drainage. — The  water  on  the  main  part  of 
the  section  may  all  be  carried  out  in  one  of  three  ways. 

The  lowest  point  of  this  farm  being  at  the  middle  of 
the  north  line  of  this  section,  at  E,  the  flood  water  de- 
livered at  E  could  best  be  carried  away  from  the  farm 
by  an  open  ditch,  E-S,  running  northeast,  following  the 
natural  depression  across  the  neighboring  farm,  or  could 
be  carried  through  a  rather  deep  ditch,  E-A,  westward  to 
the  canal  at  A,  or  it  could  be  carried  beyond  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  farm  through  heavy  road  ditches  and 
thence  along  the  road  either  to  the  north  or  the  east  to 
the  adjacent  lower  areas  at  S  or  K.  If  carried  eastward,  the 
water  would  flow  into  a  new  channel  at  K,  and  this  might 
require  the  consent  of  the  adjacent  landowners.  If 
carried  northward,  D  to  S,  from  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  farm,  it  could  be  emptied  into  the  channel  of  the 
low  area  at  S,  which  naturally  would  carry  this  water. 
If  the  discharge  were  made  at  the  center  across  the 
adjacent  farm  toward  S^  a  ditch  running  northeast  across 


l80  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

the  neighbor's  land  would  be  necessary,  and  consent,  on 
the  part  of  the  neighbor,  to  construct  the  ditch  would  be 
needed.  This  plan  has  the  advantage  in  that  there  are  no 
deep  ditches  to  be  clogged  by  ice  and  snow  early  in  the 
spring.  Carrying  it  westward  along  the  road  and  dis- 
charging it  into  the  canal  seemed  to  be  the  most  feasible 
plan.  This,  however,  has  proven  to  have  the  objection 
of  not  following  the  lowest  levels,  but  requiring  a  rather 
deep,  narrow  ditch  through  a  higher  area,  thus  making 
a  place  in  which  the  water  is  held  back  in  early  spring 
by  the  accumulated  ice  and  snow.  In  most  cases,  a 
neighbor  can  be  induced  to  agree  to  a  ditch  being  made 
through  a  low  area  on  his  land,  since  it  is  advantageous 
to  him  to  have  his  own  land  better  drained  and  to  have 
the  flood  waters  from  neighboring  lands  confined  to 
definite  channels,  which  rapidly  carry  them  ofif.  It 
would  be  economy  for  the  owner  of  the  farm  to  pay  for 
the  right  of  way  of  this  ditch  and  construct  it  at  his  own 
expense,  if  this  were  necessary  to  secure  the  consent  of 
the  neighbor.  On  the  other  hand,  its  value  to  the  neigh- 
bor should  cause  him  to  give  free  consent,  and  even  to 
assist  in  making  the  ditch  and  in  keeping  it  in  repair. 
This  illustrates  the  many  cases  where  liberal  co-opera- 
tion of  adjacent  landowners  is  not  only  necessary  to 
effect  a  good  system  of  drainage,  but  is  also  right  as 
between  man  and  man. 

Roadside  ditches. — Having  now  decided  upon  the  way 
of  conducting  the  water  from  the  lowest  point  at  the 
middle  of  the  north  side  of  the  section,  we  come  to  the 
problem  of  how  best  to  conduct  the  surface  water  to 
this  lowest  point.  This  farm  being  a  mile  square,  the 
public  highway  bounds  it  on  all  sides.  By  inspecting 
the  cross  section  levels,  as  recorded  in  Figure  80,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  land  is  highest  near  the  shallow  lake. 
This  lake  often  became  a  stream  which  sometimes 
overflowed   its   banks.     Doubtless   the   land   adjacent  to 


DRAINAGE  l8l 

the  lake  was  slightly  built  up  from  century  to  century 
by  this  flood  water  spreading  out  in  the  grass,  where  it 
rested  so  quietly  as  to  deposit  whatever  solid  particles 
the  flood  water  had  accumulated.  This  very  slight 
increase  of  fine  clay  and  silt,  year  after  year,  was 
probably  sufficient  to  make  this  portion  of  the  section  a 
foot  or  two  higher  than  the  other  portions. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  the  level  valley  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  and  in  the  case  of  many  other  rivers, 
the  land  within  half  a  mile  of  the  rivers  and  streams  is 
usually  higher  than  the  land  some  distance  back,  since 
these  rivers  frequently  overflow;  the  cause  mentioned 
in  the  previous  paragraph  seems  to  be  the  explanation. 
Consequently,  there  are  large,  wet,  level  areas  found,  from 
a  half  mile  to  several  miles  back  from  the  Red  River  of 
the  North  and  from  the  banks  of  the  streams  which  flow 
into  it  through  that  level  country.  There  are,  occasion- 
ally, openings  in  these  broad  flat  banks  through  which 
the  flood  water  can  run  into  the  streams,  but  these  are 
so  few  and  the  land  is  generally  so  nearly  level  that  the 
drainage,  on  the  whole,  is  often  poor,  and  must  be  arti- 
ficially improved  much  after  the  manner  illustrated  in 
the  discussion  of  section  of  land  mentioned  in  Figure  80. 

In  making  a  plan  for  surface  drains,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  begin  on  the  south  side  of  the  farm,  and 
instead  of  running  the  water  toward  the  lake,  now  made 
into  a  stream  or  canal,  to  conduct  it  along  farm  ditches 
and  public  road  ditches  to  the  lowest  point  at  the  center 
of  the  north  line,  and  from  there  carry  it  westward  to 
the  canal.  Thus  a  large  roadside  ditch  was  provided 
around  the  south,  east  and  north  sides  of  the  area  to  be 
drained.  When  more  expense  can  be  afforded,  a  deep 
ditch  to  carry  the  water  westward  along  the  south  side 
of  the  section  will  be  a  valuable  improvement. 

By  making  broad  ditches  along  roads  dividing  the  farm 
into  forty  and  eighty-acre  fields,  drainage  water  from 


l82  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

this  level  land  is  discharged  at  points  along  the  borders 
of  the  farm  into  these  ditches.  While  the  outside  drains 
along  the  highway  and  the  broad  farm  drains  leading 
into  them,  of  necessity,  have  very  slight  fall,  the  water 
can  pass  through  them  rather  quickly,  because  they  are 
broad  and  will  hold  a  large  volume  of  moving  water. 
The  drains  inside  the  farm,  conducting  the  water  to  these 
large  roadside  ditches,  were  placed  so  as  best  to  conduct 
the  water  off  the  land,  and  they  were  located  with  refer- 
ence to  the  arrangement  of  the  fields  into  which  it  was 
decided  to  divide  the  farm.  Thus,  the  north  half  of  the 
section  was  divided  into  four  8o-acre  fields,  and  the 
southeast  portion  of  the  farm  was  divided  into  five  40- 
acre  fields,  with  two  triangular  fields  on  the  east  border 
of  the  lake.  The  triangular  portion  on  the  west  side 
of  the  lake  was  arranged  for  a  single  field  and  was 
drained  in  much  the  same  manner  as  is  described  for  the 
fields  of  the  main  portion  of  the  farm. 

The  ditches  between  the  several  fields  were  made  by 
means  of  the  reversible  road  machine.  Instead  of  mak- 
ing a  ditch  and  throwing  the  earth  out  on  either 
side,  two  flat  ditches  were  made,  throwing  the  earth  to 
the  center  between  them,  just  as  in  throwing  up  a  grade 
for  a  road.  This  gave  a  place  to  deposit  the  earth,  with- 
out placing  it  between  the  ditch  and  the  level  field  to  be 
drained.  Since  the  very  fine  textured  clay  soils  of  this 
region  are  often  drifted  before  the  wind  into  the  drains, 
this  plan  makes  it  practicable  to  clean  the  drains  out 
occasionally  with  the  road  machine  and  provides  a  place 
to  put  the  earth.  If  the  area  between  the  two  ditches 
becomes  too  elevated  or  too  much  rounded,  it  is  remedied 
by  carrying  the  ditch  farther  out,  thus  making  the 
rounded  strip  between  the  two  ditches  broader.  The 
fence  line  can  be  placed  on  top  of  the  roadlike  bank,  or, 
if  there  is  no  fence  between  the  two  fields,  this  can  be 
used  as  a  road  over  which  to  draw  the  loads  of  grain. 


DRAINAGE  1 83 

In  case  the  two  fields  are  planted  with  the  same  crop, 
it  can  be  sown  continuously  through  the  ditches  and 
over  the  flat  embankment,  or,  if  different  crops  are  grown 
in  adjacent  fields,  each  crop  may  be  planted  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  embankment.  In  many  cases  of  level  land, 
these  side  ditches  may  be  made  so  broad  that,  even  if 
more  than  a  foot  deep,  since  they  are  so  flat,  the  plow  and 
cultivating  and  harvesting  implements  may  be  operated 
across  or  through  them.  Care  should  always  be  taken, 
however,  not  to  plow  or  cultivate  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
fill  the  ditches.  On  most  nearly  level  farms  these  broad 
flat  double  ditches  should  follow  the  lowest  places  rather 
than  as  lines  with  which  to  divide  the  fields.  Wire 
fences  crossing  them  are  easily  removed,  when  it  is  de- 
sirable to  use  the  reversible  road  machine  to  clean  the 
accumulations  of  drifted  soil  out  of  the  side  ditches. 

Dead  furrows. — To  conduct  the  water  from  the  fields 
into  these  broad  partition  ditches,  each  field  is  laid  off  in 
lands  about  lOO  feet  wide.  Each  year  the  back  furrows 
are  started  in  the  same  place  or  within  one  or  two  feet 
of  the  same  line,  thus  bringing  the  dead  furrows,  year 
after  year,  at  the  same  place.  These  dead  furrows  are 
thus  made  into  broad  flat  ditches.  Where  slight  depres- 
sions occur  some  rods  across  and  a  foot  or  less  deep,  the 
road  machine  may  be  used  to  deepen  the  dead  furrows, 
and  thus  grade  their  bottoms  so  that  the  water  in  these 
low  areas  will  all  drain  out  into  the  broad  ditches  be- 
tween the  fields.  In  some  cases,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
short  broad  ditches  from  low  areas  within  the  one-hun- 
dred-foot-wide lands  into  the  dead  furrows  between. 
Care  is  necessary  to  keep  the  dead  furrow  clear  of  rub- 
bish, and  in  some'  cases  to  open  it  out  and  grade 
its  bottom  smoothly  in  the  fall.  Where  this  open- 
ing of  ditches  has  been  neglected  until  spring,  a 
man  with  a  shovel  connects  the  low  places  and 
shallow  ditches  with  the  dead  furrows  and  cleans  out 


184  FARM  DEVELOPMENT 

the  dead  furrows  to  connect  them  with  the  larger  ditches. 
In  some  cases  the  reversible  road  machine,  or  the  slush 
or  wheel  scraper,  should  be  used  in  these  broad  dead  fur- 
rows to  lower  them  through  slightly  higher  places,  thus 
making  a  uniform  grade,  that  the  water  may  run  out 
better.  By  thus  making  a  system  of  flat  open  drains  and 
keeping  them  in  repair,  the  farmer  in  the  level  lands  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  is  sometimes 
able  to  plant  his  crops  a  week  or  two  earlier  in  the 
season.  He  thus  insures  a  better  crop  and  gets  his  grain 
planting  out  of  the  way  so  that  he  may  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  plant  his  other  crops  in  a  seasonable  time. 

Surveying  the  line  of  the  ditch. — Most  drainage  oper- 
ations begin  at  the  lower  end  of  the  ditch,  the  work  pro- 
ceeding upward,  first  along  the  main  drain,  then  from 
the  chosen  points  in  the  main  drain  where  the  branches 
are  to  have  their  junctions  to  the  upper  end  of  the  respec- 
tive branches.  With  the  point  and  elevation  of  the  out- 
let determined,  a  stake  should  be  placed  at  points  50  or 
100  feet  apart  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  drain. 
These  stakes  should  be  placed  a  foot  from  one  side  of  the 
proposed  ditch,  that  they  may  not  be  disturbed  in  ex- 
cavating. Where  the  work  must  be  very  accurate,  it 
is  wise  to  use  small  stakes,  8  inches  long  and  2  inches 
square,  for  hubs.  These  are  driven  even  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  land,  beside  the  taller  stakes  which  mark 
their  position.     See  Figure  68. 

The  leveling  instrument  is  then  to  be  used  in  finding 
the  relative  height  of  the  successive  points  marked  by 
the  stakes  and  hubs  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  drain. 
Some  point  should  be  chosen  for  a  bench  mark.  Any 
natural  object  which  is  not  likely  to  be  moved,  as  a 
large  bowlder,  or  a  stone  firmly  buried  beside  a  post  in  a 
fence,  will  serve  as  such.  The  instrument  should  now 
be  set  up  where  the  leveling  rod  can  easily  be  seen  when 
placed  on  the  point  chosen  for  the  bench  mark.     See 


DRAINAGE 


185 


Figure  58  and  notes.  For  some  purposes  the  long 
mason's  level  may  be  used,  and  levels  may  even  be 
determined  by  setting  stakes  above  the  water  level  in  a 
pond  or  lake.  By  having  the  tops  of  these  stakes  all 
extend  the  same  distance  above  the  water,  a  level  line 
may  be  projected  by  sighting  across  their  tops. 

Use  of  the  datum  plane. — In  comparing  the  height  of 
the  different  points  along  the  main  drain,  and  also  along 


Station 

Back 

Height 

Fore 

Eleva- 
tion 
Ground 

FaU 

of 

Drain 

Eleva- 
tion 
Drain 

Depth 

No. 

Sight 

Instr't 

Sight 

Drain 

B.M. 

'5.32 

10S'.32 

.... 

100.00 

.... 

0 

9.43 

95.89 

Outlet 

0 

.... 

.... 

5.82 

99.50 

Surface 

9"5".89 

"3.61 

1 

5.54 

99.78 

0.30 

96.19 

3.59 

2 

.... 

.... 

5.02 

100.30 

" 

96.49 

3.81 

3 

.... 

4.60 

100.72 

'• 

96.79 

3.93 

4 

'.'..'. 

.'..'. 

5.07 

100.25 

•• 

97.09 

3.16 

5 

8.41 

110.63 

3.10 

102.22 

" 

97.39 

4.83 

*6* 

.... 

y.84 

102.79 

Y.66 

98.39 

"4.36 

7 

.... 

7.07 

103.60 

99.39 

4.21 

8 

6.43 

104.20 

*• 

100.39 

3.81 

9 

.... 

.... 

5.63 

105.00 

" 

101.39 

3.61 

10 

5.23 

105.40 

" 

102.39 

3.01 

11 

'.'..'. 

4.38 

106.25 

•• 

103.39 

2.86 

12 

.... 

.... 

3.93 

106.70 

" 

103.79 

2.91 

13 

"6.66 

113'.36 

3.39 

107.24 

. . 

104.19 

3.05 

14" 

.... 

5.36 

108.66 

'".46 

104.59 

"3'.  41 

IS 

5.00 

108.30 

104.99 

3.31 

16 

.'.  .  . 

.'.  .  . 

4.70 

108.60 

. . .'. 

105.39 

3.21 

17 

4.05 

109.25 

105.79 

3.46 

18 

3.90 

109.40 

106.19 

3.21 

19 

.... 

.... 

3.57 

109.75 

106.59 

3.14 

20 

3.13 

110.17 

106.99 

3.18 

Fig.  81.     Blank  form  used  in  recording  notes  of  levels  taken  while  planning  for 
a  drain. 

its  branches,  some  method  is  necessary  by  which 
the  relative  heights  of  all  these  points  may  be  ascer- 
tained. There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this, 
but  what  is  wanted  is  a  simple  plan  of  calculation 
which  will  be  accurate  and  will  clearly  show  the 
relative  height  of  points  with  each  other  and  es- 
pecially with  the  outlet.  The  following  plan  is  in 
common    use,    and    with    practice    can    be     employed 


1 86 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


to  good  advantage.  After  having  carefully  leveled 
up  the  telescope  of  the  instrument,  direct  it  to  the  meas- 
uring rod  standing  on  the  point  chosen  for  a  bench  mark 
near  the  outlet  of  the  proposed  drain;  indicate  to  the 
rodman  v^ho  is  holding  this  rod,  to  move  the  disk  up  or 
down  until  its  center  is  in  line  with  the  eye  and  the 
horizontal  cross  hair  in  the  telescope.  The  rodman 
should  then  read  on  the  measuring  rod  the  exact  dis- 
tance from  the  bench  mark  up  to  the  center  of  the  disk 
and  record  same  in  field  notes,  as  in  Figure  8i.  This 
gives   the   height    of   the    instrument    above    the    bench 


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Figure  81a.    Showing  manner  of  using  leveling  instxument  in  planning  a  dralH. 


mark.  It  is  a  simple  matter  now  to  assume  that  the 
bench  mark  is  lOO  feet  above  an  imaginary  level  plane, 
which,  for  convenience,  is  termed  "  datum  plane "  or 
"  datum."  The  height  of  the  instrument  above  this 
imaginary  plane  is  lOO  feet  plus  the  distance  above  the 
bench  mark  to  the  disk  on  the  measuring  rod,  which 
is  level  with  the  eye  at  the  instrument.  To  make 
the  illustration  more  complete,  we  will  assume  that  the 
reading  in  a  given  case  on  the  measuring  rod  was  5.32 
feet.  Adding  this  figure  to  the  height  of  the  bench 
mark  above  datum,  i.  e.,  to  100  feet,  we  have  the  height 
of  the  instrument  above  datum — 105.32  feet. 


DRAINAGE  1 8/ 

In  some  cases  it  is  more  convenient  to  find  the  height 
of  the  instrument  in  its  first  position  above  the  point 
determined  upon  for  the  outlet  of  the  proposed  drain, 
and  then  assume  the  datum  plane  lOO  feet  below  the 
outlet.  Then  all  figures  showing  elevation  of  points  on 
the  surface  or  the  bottom  of  drains  may  be  compared 
with  the  outlet  by  merely  subtracting  the  loo,  which  can 
be  done  by  inspection,  saving  calculation  with  pencil. 

Now,  turning  the  telescope  toward  the  proposed  point 
of  outlet  for  the  drain,  where  the  rodman  will  place  the 
measuring  rod,  the  disk  is  again  moved  until  it  is  in 
line  with  the  eye  and  the  cross  hair  in  the  leveling  in- 
strument. We  find  that  the  reading  on  the  rod  now  is 
9.43  feet.  To  find  the  height  of  this  point  of  outlet 
above  "  datum,"  we  have  only  to  subtract  this  reading 
from  the  height  of  the  eye  at  the  instrument  called 
"  height  of  instrument "  above  datum,  thus  943  feet 
from  105.32  feet  equals  95.89  feet;  that  is,  the  outlet  of 
the  drain  is  to  be  95.89  feet  above  the  imaginary  level 
plane.  Next  a  measurement  is  taken  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  immediately  above  the  outlet,  which  may  be 
called  Station  o,  and  this  is  found  to  be  5.82  below 
the  instrument,  or  99.50  above  the  datum  plane.  These 
measurements  and  the  calculations  from  them  are  all 
placed  in  the  note  book  ruled  in  the  form  for  field  notes, 
as  in  Figure  81.  This  form  makes  it  practicable  to  carry 
forward  all  the  calculations  and  to  make  a  permanent 
record  as  the  taking  of  levels  proceeds. 

Now,  proceeding  to  the  next  stake,  Station  i,  there 
being  100  feet  between  the  stakes,  the  reading  is  taken 
in  like  manner,  and  it  is  found  that  from  the  instrument 
down  to  the  hub  at  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  5.54 
feet;  subtracting  this  measurement  from  the  height 
of  the  instrument,  105.32  feet,  we  find  the  height 
of  the  ground  at  Station  i  to  be  99.78  feet  above 
datum.     The  instrument  is  next  turned  upon  the  third 


1 88  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Stake,  which  is  Station  2,  and  the  reading  shows  5.02 
and  by  subtracting  we  have  105.32  feet,  minus  5.02  equals 
100.30  feet  as  the  height  of  Station  2  above  the 
imaginary  plan  called  datum.  Again,  proceeding  to 
Station  3,  the  rodman  holding  the  measuring  rod  re- 
ports that  the  disk  has  been  stopped  in  line  with  the 
telescope  at  4.60  feet.  This  measurement,  subtracted 
from  the  height  of  the  instrument,  shows  that  Station 
3  is  100.72  feet  above  datum.  Station  4  shows  that 
the  line  is  5.07  feet  below  the  instrument,  or  100.25  feet 
above  datum.  Station  5  is  found  to  be  3.10  feet  below 
the  instrument,  or  102.22  feet  above  datum. 

Getting  the  new  height  of  the  instrument. — As  a  mat- 
ter of  convenience  or  of  necessity,  to  see  the  disk  on  the 
measuring  rod  at  a  long  distance,  the  instrument  is  moved 
forward  so  as  to  be  nearer  the  successive  points  along 
the  line  of  the  proposed  drain,  the  heights  of  which  are 
to  be  determined.  The  operator  proceeds  several  stakes 
beyond  the  rodman,  who  remains  at  the  last  stake,  the 
height  of  which  was  last  measured.  When  the  instru- 
ment is  again  set  up,  it  is  turned  upon  the  measuring 
rod  standing  on  the  hub,  the  height  of  which  was  last 
determined  with  the  instrument  in  its  previous  position. 
The  rodman  moves  the  disk  until  in  line  with  the  in- 
strument in  its  new  position.  He  then  finds  that  the 
measurement  is  8.41  feet.  The  instrument  is  now  con- 
siderably higher  than  in  its  original  position.  Since  the 
hub  on  which  this  measuring  rod  is  standing  is  known 
to  be  102.22  feet  above  the  imaginary  level  datum  plane, 
and  the  eye  at  the  instrument  is  on  a  level  8.41  feet 
above  the  hub,  the  height  of  the  instrument  is 
now  102.22,  plus  8.41,  or  110.63  feet  above  datum.  With 
this  new  height  of  instrument,  it  is  now  practicable  to 
proceed  to  Station  6  and  determine  its  height  above 
datum.  Here  the  rodman,  after  moving  the  disk  until 
told  that  it  is  level  with  the  instrument,  reports  that  the 


DRAINAGE  1 89 

Stake  is  7.84  feet  below  the  point  where  the  disk  has 
been  placed  level  with  the  instrument,  which  is  110.63 
feet  above  datum;  Station  6  is  then  110.63  ^^^t»  minus 
7.84  feet,  or  102.79  feet  above  datum.  In  like  manner, 
the  height  of  Stations  7,  8,  etc.,  are  successively 
measured;  or  when  the  earth  at  the  stations  is  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  instrument,  the  operator  must  again 
move  the  instrument,  and,  sighting  back  (getting  the 
"  back  sight ")  to  the  point  last  measured,  again  find 
the  new  height  of  his  instrument.  In  this  manner  we 
proceed  to  Station  20;  that  is,  2,000  feet  from  the 
outlet. 

That  we  may  now  illustrate  the  method  of  getting  the 
new  height  of  the  instrument  when  going  down  grade, 
and,  where  necessary  for  great  accuracy  of  checking  up 
the  work  already  done,  we  will  begin  at  the  upper  end  and 
check  the  levels  at  the  successive  stations  back  to  the 
proposed  outlet.  By  referring  to  Figure  81  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  elevation  of  the  surface  at  Station  20  is 
1 10.17  feet;  and  that  the  instrument  standing  in  its 
last  position  is  3.13  feet  above  the  hub  at  this  point,  or 
is  113.30  feet  above  datum.  Now,  turning  again  on 
Station  19,  the  rodman  reads  3.57  feet,  and  subtracting 
this  from  the  height  of  the  instrument  above  datum,  we 
have  as  the  height  of  Station  19,  109.73  ^^^t.  Proceed- 
ing to  Station  18,  the  rodman  reads  3,90  feet;  at  17, 
4.05  feet;  at  16,  4.70  feet;  at  15,  5  feet;  at  14,  5.30  feet. 
On  account  of  the  distance,  it  is  now  deemed  advisable 
to  get  a  new  height  of  instrument,  and  the  instrument 
is  moved  down  to  the  neighborhood  of  Station  9.  When 
the  instrument  is  properly  leveled  up  and  turned  on  Sta- 
tion 14,  the  rodman  finds  his  disk  in  line  with  the  in- 
strument at  2.47  feet.  Since  the  height  of  the  surface 
at  Station  14  is  108  feet  and  the  instrument  is  found 
to  be  2.40  feet  higher  than  at  this  point,  the  new  height 
of  the  instrument  is  calculated  to  be  110.40  feet. 


190 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


When  directed  to  Station  13  the  rodman  reports  the 
measurement  from  the  instrument  down  to  the  hub  as 
3.16  feet,  making  the  elevation  of  Station  13,  107  feet. 
So  far  the  measurements  have  proven  the  original 
survey  correct,  since  upon  taking  the  measurements 
from  the  level  of  the  instrument  down  to  the  several 
stakes,  their  respective  heights  above  datum  figure  out 
the  same  as  when  measured  up  grade.  By  thus  pro- 
ceeding downward  to  the  outlet,  changing  the  instrument 
once  more,  if  there  is  but  little  variation  found  in  any 
of  the  measurements  the  first  survey  is  proven  accurate, 
and  when  the  height  of  datum  is  measured,  it  is  found  to 


Station 

Back 

Height 

Fore 

Elevation 

Fall  of 

Depth 

No. 

Sight 

Instr't 

Sight 

Ground 

Drain 

Drain 

B.  M. 

.... 

.... 

113.30 

.... 

.... 

'26* 

3.13 

110.17 

.... 

19 

.... 

3.57 

109.73 

18 

3.90 

17 

4.0s 

.... 

16 

.... 

4.70 

.... 

IS 

.... 

S.OO 

14 

5.30 

108.66 

13 

110.4( 

) 

2.47 

3.16 

107.24 

12 

11 

.... 

.... 

10 

.... 

.... 

.... 

9 

8 







Fig.  82.     Same  as  Fig.  81,  witli  measurements  of  levels  taken  down  grade. 

be  99.99  feet  above  datum  plane  or  practically  correct. 
See  Figure  82.  By  testing  the  adjustment  of  the  in- 
strument before  starting  out  and  doing  the  work  accu- 
rately, the  experienced  man  can  usually  depend  upon  his 
levels.  But  if  a  great  difference  is  found  between  the 
two  surveys,  the  measurements  should  be  again  made 
with  accuracy,  and,  if  still  an  error  appears,  the  instru- 
ment should  be  tested  and,  if  needing  adjustment,  a 
competent  person  should  be  employed  to  repair  and 
adjust  it. 


DRAINAGE  I9I 

"  Back  sight  "  and  "  fore  sight "  or  "  plus  sight  "  and 
"minus  sight." — In  the  tabulated  statement,  Figures  8i 
and  82,  the  measurements  from  points  of  known  heights 
up  to  the  instrument  are  called  back  sights,  or  some- 
times plus  sights;  that  is,  we  add  the  height  from  the 
surface  up  to  the  line  of  sight  through  the  instrument  to 
the  known  distance  above  datum  of  the  surface  where 
the  leveling  rod  stands  in  order  to  get  the  new  height  of 
the  instrument. 

There  is  a  column  in  the  table  headed  fore  sight,  some- 
times called  minus  sight.  In  this  column  are  placed 
the  measurements  from  the  height  of  the  instrument 
down  to  given  stations,  the  height  of  which  it  is  desired 
to  know.  Since  the  instrument  is  always  higher  than 
the  point  we  wish  to  measure,  we  always  subtract  the 
measurement  from  the  height  of  the  instrument  down  to 
the  point  in  question  so  as  to  determine  the  height  of  that 
point  above  datum.  These  measurements,  which  are  to 
find  the  height  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  properly 
termed  minus  sights,  to  be  subtracted  from  the  height 
of  the  instrument,  as  distinguished  from  the  plus  sights, 
which  are  added  to  the  known  heights  of  given  points, 
which  are  always  used  to  find  the  height  of  the  instru- 
ment. Back  sights  are  often  abbreviated  B.  S.  and  fore 
sights  F.  S.,  in  the  tabulated  notes. 

How  to  use  measurements  of  levels. — Now  that  the 
levels  of  the  successive  stations  along  the  proposed  line 
of  the  ditch  have  been  determined,  a  method  of  using 
them  is  necessary.  Where  there  is  considerable  fall, 
very  little  surveying  or  calculation  is  needed  since  an 
experienced  person  can  determine  the  depth  the  ditch 
should  be  at  each  station  by  merely  inspecting  the 
figures  and  the  land.  In  cases,  however,  where  the  pro- 
posed drain  is  long,  where  the  grade  is  slight,  or  where 
slight  elevations  requiring  deep  ditches  necessitate  con- 
siderable  expense,  or  where   the   connection   of  lateral 


192 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


drains  with  a  drainage  system  complicates  the  problem, 
it  is  sometimes  wise  to  use  profile  paper  in  making  what 
is  termed  a  profile  of  each  of  the  proposed  ditches. 

The  profile  is  a  great  help  in  devising  the  proper 
grades  for  long  drains  on  very  flat  areas  so  as  to  have 
them  sufficiently  deep  in  the  lower  places,  not  too  deep 
where  the  digging  would  be  considerable  and  yet  have 
the  most  practical  grades  for  eflfectually  carrying  off  the 
water  at  the  least  expense  for  construction. 

How  to  make  a  profile. — The  figures  representing  the 
height  of  the  successive  stations  above  datum,  as  re- 
corded in  Figure  81,  are  used  to  show  the  surface  of  the 


Figure  83.    Profile  showing  surface  and  the  grade  line  of  the  ditch,  thus  glTlng  the 
depth  of  the  ditch. 

land  at  each  station.  Figure  83  shows  how  the  heights 
above  datum  are  mapped  into  a  profile  to  show  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  along  the  line  of  the  ditch,  from  its  out- 
let to  its  head.  This  line  having  been  mapped  in,  an- 
other line  beneath  the  surface  can  be  drawn,  showing 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  whether  tile  drain  or  open  ditch. 
By  careful  inspection  and  measurement,  or  by  counting 
the  lines,  this  line  representing  the  grade  of  the  ditch 
can  be  so  placed  that  the  ditch  will  not  be  made  un- 
necessarily deep  and  expensive,  nor  yet  too  near  the  sur- 
face at  any  point.  It  will  be  observed  that  points  have 
been  chosen  along  the  line  of  the  ditch  where  the  grade 
is  slightly  changed.  Between  these  points  straight  lines 
are  drawn,  showing  that  the  grade  is  to  be  uniform 
between  the  chosen  points.  By  using  a  soft  pencil, 
these  points  for  changing  the  grade  may  be  located  and 
trial  lines  made,  and,  if  not  in  the  right  place,  they  may 


DRAINAGE  1 93 

be  erased  and  other  trials  made,  until  the  depth  of  the 
proposed  ditch  at  the  various  points  is  so  arranged  as 
to  make  an  effective  system  of  drains  without  unneces- 
sary expense. 

In  case  of  branch  drains,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
make  profiles  of  the  several  branches  before  finally 
deciding  upon  the.  grade  and  depth  of  the  main  drain, 
showing  their  relations  to  the  main  drain,  in  order  that 
the  entire  plan  of  the  drainage  system  may  be  so  mapped 
out  as  to  make  all  parts  fit  together  in  a  manner  that 
will  insure  practical  slants,  or  grades,  for  carrying  the 
water  from  all  portions  of  the  land,  and  yet  will  not 
necessitate  deeper  and  more  expensive  drains  than 
necessary. 

The  profile  in  Figure  83  shows  the  surface  line  of  the 
ground  at  each  station  on  the  line  of  a  proposed  ditch,  as 
determined  by  the  use  of  the  level,  the  leveling  rod 
and  the  calculations,  Figure  81.  This  profile  is 
so  made  that  the  vertical  lines  represent  the  stations 
100  feet  apart,  O  representing  the  outlet.  Each 
horizontal  line  represents  a  foot  in  height.  The  hori- 
zontal line  A-B  represents  a  line  100  feet  above  datum. 
It  may  be  seen  from  this  profile  that  between  Stations 
O-5,  5-1 1  and  11-20  the  profile  of  the  ground 
surface  presents  three  different  grades.  While  it 
would  be  possible  to  give  the  ditch  a  uniform 
grade  between  Stations  O  and  20,  as  indicated  by  the 
dotted  line,  it  would  be  impracticable,  as  it  would  bring 
the  ditch  too  near  the  surface  between  Stations  1-6  and 
too  deep  between  Stations  10-16.  To  avoid  this  the 
ditch  is  run  on  three  separate  grades,  which  give  it  a 
nearly  uniform  depth  and  still  allow  sufficient  slope  to 
carry  off  the  water. 

By  deciding  upon  the  depth  of  the  drain  at  each  point 
chosen  for  a  change  of  grade,  the  amount  of  fall  per  100 
feet  can  be  determined  between  each  of  two  points  of 


194  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

change.  Then,  by  subtracting  the  depth  of  the  ditch  at 
each  point  of  change  of  grade  from  the  elevation  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  above  datum,  the  elevation,  above 
datum,  of  the  bottom  for  the  ditch  at  these  points  can  be 
placed  in  the  column  for  Elevation  of  Drain.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  elevation  of  the  drain  above  datum  be- 
tween two  points  divided  by  the  number  of  stations  lOO 
feet  apart  gives  the  grade  per  loo  feet.  By  beginning 
at  the  lower  point  and  adding  this  amount  to  the  height 
of  each  station,  the  height  of  the  next  station  is  deter- 
mined. The  depth  of  drain  at  each  station  is  then 
determined  by  subtracting  the  height  of  the  drain  above 
datum  from  the  height  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
above  datum  at  that  station.  These  records  can  be  copied 
from  the  notebook  upon  stakes  and  thus  show  the  depth 
to  dig  the  ditch  at  the  respective  stations. 

Deciding  upon  amount  of  slope  or  grade. — In  deciding 
the  most  practical  grade,  or  slant,  of  the  line  of  the  drain, 
and  the  size  of  the  ditch  or  the  diameter  of  the  drain  tile, 
rules  are  of  some  use,  but  very  often  these  matters  can 
best  be  determined  by  one  who  has  had  practical  ex- 
perience under  similar  conditions.  In  rare  cases,  a  steep 
grade  causes  an  open  ditch  to  be  gullied  out  by  the 
swift  running  water,  and  a  more  level  grade  with 
an  occasional  waterfall  buttressed  with  stones  would 
be  better,  but  generally  on  flat  lands  the  effort 
should  be  to  secure  a  rapid  fall  in  the  grade.  In 
some  cases,  for  example,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  in  Holland,  and  in  other  very  flat 
countries,  large  open  drains  must,  of  necessity,  be  made 
nearly  level.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  water  will  be 
removed  by  an  open  drain  that  has  only  a  few  feet  of 
fall  per  mile,  or  a  tile  drain  that  has  only  2  to  4  inches  fall 
per  100  feet.  Width  of  the  ditch,  or  diameter  of  drain 
tile  must  largely  make  up  for  lack  of  fall,  since  water 
that  has  so  little  speed  must  be  carried  in  a  larger  drain 


—/60ffOD3  — 

Figure  84.  Showing  system  of  mapping  drains  and  sizes  of  tilea  in  low  places  on  a 
240-acre  farm.  The  double  curved  line  south  of  the  highway  is  a  creek;  the  double 
line  on  the  north  of  the  highway  is  an  open  ditch.  The  tile  drains  open  into 
the  creek  and  open  ditches.  The  rainfall  is  about  30  inches,  and  except  in  line  of  the 
open  ditch  no  large  amount  of  flood  water  need  be  provided  for.  (See  notes  at  bottom 
of  page  196.) 


196 


196  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

in  order  to  remove  the  volume  of  flood  water  or  rainfall. 
The  minimum  grade  for  tile  drains  is  usually  considered 
as  about  2  inches  to  the  100  feet.  Generally,  tiles  need 
not  be  laid  at  a  less  grade  than  4  to  6  inches  fall  to  the 
100  feet. 

The  size  of  tiles  to  be  used  is  important,  because  drains 
which  are  too  small  to  carry  a  given  amount  of  water 
at  a  given  grade  will  not  drain  off  the  water  rapidly 
enough  to  avoid  injuring  the  crops,  and  the  use  of  tiles 
larger  than  necessary  is  a  waste  of  money.  The  amount 
of  rain  which  annually  falls  in  a  locality,  the  flood  water 
received  by  the  wet  area  from  surrounding  lands,  the 
distance  apart  of  the  drains,  the  presence  or  absence  of 
seepage  or  spring  water  in  the  subsoil,  the  character  of 
the  subsoil,  the  amount  of  fall,  or  grade,  given  the  drain, 
and  sometimes  other  considerations,  make  the  problem 
a  complicated  one.  In  the  notes  under  Figure  84,  the 
sizes  of  tiles  to  be  used  in  the  various  main  and  branch 
drains   there   mapped   are   specified,   together   with    the 

Main  I,  from  1  to  12,  has  a  grade  of  4  inches  per  100  feet;  and  4-inch  tiles  are  used 
from  1  to  11,  and  from  10  to  12.  also  from  12  to  13.  Branches  11,  12  and  13  have 
grades  of  4  inches  per  100  feet,  and  3-inch  tiles  are  used. 

Main  2  and  its  branches  are  all  laid  at  a  grade  of  8  inches  per  100  feet.  A  6-inch 
tile  is  used  from  2  to  21,  5-inch  from  21  to  211,  4-inch  tiles  from-  21  to  K,  and  211 
to  M,  and  3-inch  tiles  thence  to  the  upper  ends  of  the  two  branch  drains. 

Main  3  has  a  6-inch  grade  to  K,  thence  10  inches.  Sizes  tiles  used:  6-inch,  3  to 
32,  and  3-inch  beyond  K.  Branch  32  and  sub-branch  321  have  a  grade  of  8  inches, 
and  322  a  grade  of  8  inches  to  F,  and  12  inches  from  F  to  the  upper  end.  Sizes  used: 
5-inch  on  32  to  321,  4-inch  on  321  to  S  and  322  to  F;  3-inch  above  F  and  S.  Branch 
31  and  sub-branch  311  have  a  grade  of  6-inch  to  P  and  E  and  beyond  10  inches  or 
more.     Sizes  used:  4-inch,  31  to  311;  beyond,   3-inch. 

Main  4  and  its  branches,  8-inch  grade;  4-inch  tile  4  to  41,  and  beyond  3-inch  tiles. 

Main  5:  Grade  5  to  X,  3  inches,  5-inch  tile;  grade  X  to  upper  end  (springy  hill- 
side).  10  inches,   4 -inch  tile. 

Main  6:  Grade  6  to  62,  10  inches,  tiles  4-inch;  grade  branches  61  and  62.  8  Inches, 
tiles   3-inch. 

Main  7:  Grade  10  inches,  tile  5-inch;  branch  71,  grade  to  L,  6  inches,  and  beyond 
12  inches  or  more;  tiles  4-lnch  from  71  to  L,  and  beyond  L  3-inch;  branch  72,  grade  to 
M.  8  inches,  and  beyond  10;  tiles  4-inch  from  72  to  M,  and  3-inch  beyond. 

Main  8:    Grade,   16  inches;    size.   3-inch. 

Main  9:.  Grade  to  R,  10  inches;  tile,  5- inch;  grade  R  to  S,  6  inches,  tile,  4-lnch' 
grade  beyond  S,  12  inches;  tile,  3-inch;  branch  91,  grade.  8  inches;  tile,  91  to  C  4- 
inch;  C  to  upper  end,  3-inch. 

Main  10:  Grade  10  to  101,  10  inches;  beyond,  14  inches;  branch  101,  grade,  36 
Inches  or  more  (the  upper  end  tapping  a  spring  with  considerable  water);  tiles  10  to 
101,  8-inch,  beyond  3-inch;  tiles,   101  to  F,  6-inch,  beyond  4-inch. 

Main  II:  Grade  to  B,  18  inches,  beyond  B  20  inches;  tiles,  11  to  B.  4-inch,  beyond 
B  3-inch. 

Main  12:  Grade  12  to  121,  20  Inches,  beyond  121,  24  inches:  tiles  12  to  121  4-inch- 
beyond  122.  3-inch;  branch  121,  grade  36  inches;  tUe.  3-inch. 


DRAINAGE 


197 


length  and  grade,  showing  how  maps  and  specifications 
can  be  made. 

Depth  to  make  drains. — The  roots  of  nearly  all  cul- 
tivated plants  grow  best  where  the  surface  of  the  ground 


Figure  85.     Showing   elevation   of  the  soil  above  datum,   also  elevation  of  drain  at 
stations  50  feet  apart,  as  entered  from  surveyor's  blank. 

water  is  at  the  depth  of  3  to  6  feet  or  more,  so  that  they 
can  spread  in  soil  containing  only  capillary  water  with 
the  interspaces  filled  with  air  down  to  at  least  some  feet. 
Tile  drains  may  be  laid  3  or  4  feet  deep  rather  cheaply, 
but  deeper  than  this  the  expense  increases  rapidly. 
Extensive  experience  has  led  farmers  to  lay  tile  drains 
at  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet  where  there  are  no  special 
reasons  for  laying  shallower  or  deeper.  In  some  cases 
where  the  water  percolates  through  soils  very  slowly,  it 
is  best  to  lay  the  tiles  not  deeper  than  an  average  of 
2  feet.     Since  the  drain  must  have  a  nearly  uniform  fall 


Figure  86.     Depth   of  ditch   at   each   station, 
from  height  of  surface  on  surveyor's  blank. 


secured  by   subtracting  height  of  ditch 


regardless  of  the  contour  of  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  at  all  points  must  slope  toward  the  outlet,  the  drain 
is  necessarily  deeper  at  some  points  than  at  others. 
In  low  places,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  bring  the  tiles 
nearer  the  surface;  always,  however,  keeping  them 
sufficiently  deep  that  they  will  not  be  disturbed  by 
the  plow. 


198 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Where  deep  subsoiling  is  practiced  the  top  of  the  tiles 
should  be  at  least  15  inches  deep,  and,  in  no  case,  even 
in  rather  open  soil,  which  v^ill  not  need  subsoiling, 
should  the  tiles  be  laid  nearer  the  surface  than  10  to  12 
inches.  In  case  of  very  dense  subsoils,  where  fine,  dense 
clay  is  thrown  back  into  the  ditch  over  the  deeply  laid 
tiles,  the  surface  water  may  be  prevented  from  reaching 
the  drain  quickly,  especially  if  it  be  laid  too  deeply,  and 
the  drain  be,  therefore,  of  little  service.  If  the  ditch  be 
filled  with  gravel   or  other  porous  material,   the   water 


Figure  87.  Cross  section  through  two  tile  drains  showing  direction  the  water  fol- 
lows in  reaching  the  openings  in  the  tiles.  After  a  heavy  rainfall  the  surface  of  the 
ground  water  rises  to  the  line  X.  As  this  gradually  seeps  sidewise  into  the  bottoms 
of  tlie  tiles  the  surface  of  the  water  sinks,  as  to  the  line  T. 

can  get  into  the  deep  drain  quite  as  readily  as  if  it  were 
nearer  the  surface.  This  precaution  is  necessary  only 
in  rare  cases. 

Special  survey  notes. — In  surveying  out  the  line  of  the 
ditch,  special  notes  should  be  made  of  all  unusual  fea- 
tures, and  of  the  exact  points  at  which  laterals  branch 
off,  and,  where  practicable,  the  location  of  the  drain  at 
diflFerent  points,  as  where  crossing  a  line  of  land  survey, 
or  near  a  monument  which  has  been  recorded  in  previous 
land  surveys;  these  should  be  carefully  noted,  showing 
the  exact  distances  and  directions  to  given  points,  so 


DRAINAGE 


199 


that  the  under  drain  may  be  easily  located  at  any  time. 
Notes  on  grade  stakes. — In  making  careful  surveys 
with  grade  stakes  every  50  or  100  feet,  the  depth  to 
which  the  ditch  is  to  be  dug  at  these  points  should  be 
marked  on  the  stakes.  Thus,  in  Figure  86  are  shown 
stakes;  at  the  first  stake  the  cut  is  to  be  4  feet;  at  the 
next  stake  it  is  to  be  4.35  feet,  etc. 

Surveyor's    notes    should    be    preserved. — Where    the 
drainage    problem    is    sufficiently    complicated    and    dif- 

^^ ^  ficult  to  require  a  careful 

survey,  the  notes  should 
be  systematically  re- 
corded and  drawings  and 
profiles  should  be  so 
made  as  to  make  a  per- 
manent record  of  the 
survey  and  of  the  fin- 
ished  drain. 

The  plat  of  the  land 
should  show  the  general 
land  survey. — In  cases 
of  large  drainage  enter- 
prises, a  copy  of  the 
government  land  survey  may  be  made,  and  to  this 
the  surveyor's  notes  added,  making  such  contour  maps 
as  are  necessary,  and  locating  the  lines  of  the  main  and 
lateral  open  and  tile  drains.  A  system  of  naming  or 
numbering  the  main  and  laterals,  such,  for  example,  as 
is  carried  out  in  Figure  84,  should  be  adopted.  The 
daily  notes  in  platting  and  leveling  can  be  taken  in  a 
notebook  and  should  be  at  once  transcribed  upon  the 
map  upon  which  the  drain  is  to  be  platted.  Simple 
drawings  made  on  pages  of  the  notebook  will  aid  in  keep- 
ing a  record  of  the  linear  measurements  and  angles  while 
making  the  general  land  survey  and  the  leveling  meas- 
urements, also  in  making  the  profile.     The  profiles  of  the 


Figure  88.     Earth  removed  from  A  X  to  B  with 
reversible  road  machine;  from  X  to  Y  with  spade. 


200 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


main  and  of  each  lateral  drain  should  show  all  eleva- 
tions, grade  lines  and  bridges ;  and,  in  case  of  tile  drains, 
any  special  features,  as  silt  wells,  etc.,  should  be  given. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  TILE  DRAINS 


Much  effort  has  been  expended  in  the  construction  of 
machines  for  making  underground  drains  which  open 
out  the  ditches  and,  at  the  same  operation,  lay  the  tiles 
and  return  the  earth  into  the  ditch.  While  some  sub- 
stantial progress  has  been  made  with  this  class  of  ma- 
chinery, it  is  at  best  adapted  only  to 
long  lines  of  ditch  to  be  made  in  land 
free  from  stones.  The  man  with  the 
spade  must  continue  to  make  the  tile 
drains  in  all  difficult  places  and  in  cases 
where  the  line  of  the  drain  is  not  suf- 
ficiently long  to  warrant  the  use  of 
machinery. 

Opening  with  spade. — Like  the  sur- 
vey, as  a  rule,  the  work  should  begin  at 
the  lower  end  or  outlet  of  the  drain. 
In  some  cases,  the  upper  8  to  12  inches 
of  earth  may  be  easily  thrown  out  by 
means  of  a  common  plow  or  the  rever- 
sible road  machine.  To  make  the  line  ,/,n%fd  uT^tchet 
of  the  ditch  straight,  a  cord  may  be  "^^^^  ti.  i^HZJ.  Tll\ 
used  to  mark  one  side  of  the  ditch.  S'  tS  'KS  u  \l 
Those   who  have   not  had   experience   S"  ^r^X^k  't  'Z 

will   be  surprised  that  the   ditch   should     ZdTand  maRfn^it  2'f";t 
^^.1  ,1  .  .        ,  .  ,        wide  at  the  top  adds  two- 

not  be  more  than  10  to  12  mches  wide  thirds  to  the  earth 
at  the  top  for  a  ditch  3  or  4  feet  deep. 
Figure  89,  with  notes,  illustrates  the  fact  that  much  less 
earth  is  handled  in  the  narrow  ditch.  Experience  will 
convince  anyone  that  there  is  no  serious  inconvenience 
in  working  in  a  narrow  ditch.     In  fact,  the  sides  being 


I5 


DRAINAGE  201 

perpendicular  and  near  together,  is  an  advantage  in 
enabling  the  spademan  to  work  loose  his  spadefuls  of 
earth. 

Figure  87  shows  the  movements  of  rainwater  in  its 
course  into  the  tile  drain.  The  curved  line,  T-T,  repre- 
sents the  surface  of  the  zone  of  ground  water.  Above 
this,  the  rainwater  is  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  as 

percolating  directly  downward. 

When    it   reaches   the    surface 

Figure    90.     Tile    or    ditching   spade,  r  .v        cfotirlintr  iAra+<=.r   anrl    aHHc 

blades  made  18,  20  and  22  inches  long.  OI  tnC  StanQing  WatCr   aUQ  aQQS 

6   to   7   inches  wide,   and  much  curved,  .        .,       1,^:^1,4.     4.U  ^    ^-^^-^^A    ,,,«4.^^ 

as  shown   in  cross  section  at  A.     This  tO   itS   height,  thC    grOUUd   WatCr 

is   a   surprisingly   useful   tool   in   open-  _                  .                      •  j         •            .                j 

ing  tile  or  open  drains  in  many  easily  flOWS      laStcr      SiaeWlSC      tOWarCl 

worked    soils.       By    turning    it    at    an  i   •    i                            i     •  i 

angle   as   shown   in   Figure   93   the  bot-  thc    tllcS,    whlCh    arC    SO    laid    aS 

torn    of    the    ditch    may    be    made    as  ' 

narrow   as    desired   for   a    3    or    4-inch  ^q     alloW     it     tO     floW     betWCeU 

their  ends  and  flow  away 
through  the  tiles,  and  thus  prevent  the  ground  water 
rising  higher  and  sniothering  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
In  case  of  a  very  heavy  fall  of  rain,  the  ground  water 
accumulates  more  rapidly  than  it  can  seep  sidewise  to 
the  tiles,  or  possibly  is  in  such  quantity  that  the  tile  can- 
not carry  it  all  off,  even  though  running  full.   The  line  X 

shows  how  the  water  rises  be- .^ 

tween  tiles  laid  at  intervals  of     ^^^  ^ -^ 

several    rods    apart.       The    pOSi-        Figure   91.      Small  tne   spade,   Wade 

•■^  i,.  1^  inches  long,  4%  inches  wide  at  top, 

tlOn     of    the     lower     curved     hne     "^^d    in    bottom    of    narrow    ditch    for 

2   or  3-inch  tiles.     Not  much  used,   as 

and  the  water  within  the  tiles  *[}«  S^'better?*'  ^^*"*  ^"'  ^^^'^^^^ 
illustrates    the    fact    that    the 

water  passes  into  the  lower  half  of  the  tile  and  that  it 
can  seep  in  through  the  openings  between  the  ends  of 
the  tiles,  not  needing  to  pass  through  the  walls. 

In  Figure  93,  A  shows  the  manner  of  sinking  the  spade 
in  taking  out  the  successive  courses  in  opening  a  tile  drain 
by  hand  in  a  free  soil.  B,  C,  D,  E  and  F  represent  suc- 
ceeding courses.  By  thus  ^'racking"  the  spade,  each  block 
of  earth  is  broken  loose  from  the  side,  leaving  a  square, 
even  bank.    Since  only  one  side  is  broken  loose  and  that 


202 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


with  a  revolving  motion,  it  is  removed  with  a  small 
expenditure  of  force.  Being  broken  loose  so  easily, 
it  is  not  so  much  crumbled  up  and  the  spademan  gets  out 
nearly  all  he  has  broken  loose.  The  succeeding  courses  are 
removed  in  a  similar  manner.  In  case  of  lower  courses, 
D   and   E,   Figure  94,   if  the   ditch   is   narrow,   there  is 

economy  of  labor  in 
using  a  spade  with  a 
long,  narrow  blade,  tak- 
ing a  deep  thin  slice  or 
block  from  the  edge  of 

Figure  92.    Tile  hoe  for  grading  bottom  of  tUe     the  COUrSe,CUt  diagonally 
ditch.  t.  1-  •  r 

by  each  previous  use  of 
the  spade.  While  apparently  a  small  matter,  a  trial  of  this 
idea  will  illustrate  the  wisdom  of  constantly  exercising 
intelligence  in  finding  easy  ways  of  doing  the  plain,  hard 
work  of  the  farm. 

In  Figure  94,  the  man  A  is  cutting  the  sod  at  either 
side  line  of  the  ditch.  B,  C,  D  and  E  are  spading  out 
successive  courses  of  earth,  F  is  grad- 
ing the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  a  true 
uniform  slant,  using  the  grading  staff, 
H,  to  keep  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  par- 
allel with  the  steel  wire  stretched  at  the 
desired  slant  at  a  given  distance  above 
the  grade.  The  arm  on  the  grading 
staff  is  adjustable  to  whatever  distance 
the  steel  wire  is  placed  above  the  bot- 
tom desired  for  .the  ditch.  I  is  laying 
tiles  by  hand  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  adTSbie''"o  Sh^^or 
At  J  a  branch  drain  enters  the  main  ^""' 
drain.  K  is  laying  tiles  with  a  tile  hook,  as  on  a  bottom 
too  soft  to  bear  a  man's  weight.  L  is  filling  in  several 
inches  of  earth  over  the  tiles,  tramping  it  compactly  over 
them.     M  is  filling  in  the  bulk  of  the  earth  with  a  shovel. 

Grading  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. — Making  the  bottom 


DRAINAGE 


203 


of  the  ditch  uniform  in  grade,  or  fall,  toward  the  outlet  is 
the  only  difficult  part  of  constructing  a  tile  drain.  Where 
water  gently  oozes  out  into  the  ditch  from  the  surround- 
ing soil  and  runs  toward  the  outlet,  it  can  be  used  by 
the  experienced  man  as  a  guide  in  grading  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch.  The  eye  soon  learns  to  judge  by  the  rippling 
of  the  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  whether  or  not 
the  grade  is  uniform.  If  the  stream  lies  smooth  and 
sluggish  in  one  place 
and  flows  rapidly  in 
another,  the  tile  hoe 
is  used  to  make  the 
ditch  deeper  at  the 
upper  portions  of  the 
rapids,  and  thus  the 
grade  is  made  so  even 
that  the  water  runs 
with  a  uniform  speed 
throughout  the  entire 
length  of  that  part  of 
the  drain  which  is 
being  constructed  on 
a  given  grade.  Where 
the  grade  changes,  as 
in  changing  the  grade 
below  a  given  station 
to  another  grade 
above,  the  eye  must 
be  trained  to  adjust 
the  new  grade  to  the 
flow  of  water.  If  the 
depth  of  the  ditch  at 
the  separate  stations 
has  been  placed  on  stakes,  by  measuring  down  when  the 
new  station  is  reached  the  grade  can  be  corrected,  as 
each  stake  is  approached,  so  as  to  keep  it  at  that  depth 


Fig.  93.    Method  of  spading  out  successive  courses  in 
opening  a  ditch  for  tiles. 


204 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


decided  upon  in  working  out  the  survey  notes.  In  grad- 
ing with  water,  the  safest  way  is  to  go  too  shallow  rather 
than  too  deep,  as  it  is  not  always  practicable  to  fill  in 
with  loose  materials  under  the  tiles  in  running  water. 
This  can,  of  course,  be  done  by  using  gravel  or  coarse 
stones  which  will  not  be  displaced  by  running  water. 
Many  practical  ditchers  require  no  survey  whatever  if 
there  is  water  in  the  ditch,  and  ample  fall,  since  they 


Figure  94.    Ten  men  performing  successive  operations  in  opening  the  ditch,  grading  the 
bottom  and  filling  the  ditch. 

can  lay  out  the  general  plan  of  a  drain  with  the  eye,  and 
by  carefully  using  the  water  as  an  indicator  can  make  a 
thoroughly  practical  drain. 

The  triangular  tile  drain  grader,  shown  in  Figure  95, 
may  be  made  any  suitable  length,  as  10,  12  or  16^ 
feet.  When  the  lower  board  is  level,  a  large  nail  is  driven 
in  its  upper  edge  immediately  under  the  point  of  the 
plumb  bob.  If  it  is  a  rod  long,  it  may  be  adjusted  to 
grading  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  etc.,  inches  per  100  feet  by 
using  blocks  one-third  of  an  inch  thick  under  one  end, 
driving  a  nail  under  the  point  of  the  plumb  bob  each 
time  the  upper  end  is  raised  by  the  addition  of  one  of 


DRAINAGE 


205 


these  blocks,  just  as  the  device  shown  in  Figure  96  is 
adjusted  to  similar  changes  in  grade  by  moving  the  bolt 
supporting  the  upper  board  into  holes  one-third  of  an 
inch  lower.  If  the  device  is  shorter  than  16^  feet,  the 
size  of  the  blocks  used  in  placing  the  nails  should  be 
proportionately  thinner.  Thus,  if  10  feet  long,  the 
blocks  should  be  one-fifth  of  an  inch  thick.  Figure  96 
illustrates  a  grading  frame  used  in  leveling  ditches. 
A,  spirit  level;  B,  hinged  end  of  board  at  back  or  lower 
end  of  frame ;  C,  loose  end  of  board  at  front  of  frame, 
which  can  be  lowered  or  raised,  so  that,  when  the  spirit 
level  stands  level,  the  bottom  board,  D  to  E,  will  have  the 
desired  slant  to  give  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  the 
proper  grade.  The  frame 
is  pulled  forward  as  fast 
as  the  ditch  is  lowered 
sufficiently  to  allow  of 
its  being  moved  without  ^ 
throwing  the  spirit  bulb 
out  of  level.  A  change 
for  a  steeper  grade  is  made  by  putting  the  pin  at  C 
in  a  lower  hole,  and  to  a  slighter  grade  by  putting 
the  pin  in  a  higher  hole. 

Grading  devices. — In  Figures  95,  96,  97  and  98  are 
shown  different  forms  of  leveling  devices  found  useful 
in  making  the  bottom  of  the  tile  drain  at  a  uniform 
grade.  Proceeding  from  one  station  to  another,  the 
accuracy  of  the  grading  frame  is  tested  by  measuring 
down  from  the  stake  at  the  new  station.  If  the  grade 
has  been  too  great,  and  the  ditch  is  not  sufficiently  deep, 
the  grading  frame  should  be  readjusted  to  a  slightly  less 
grade,  and  if  the  ditch  is  too  deep  when  the  forward 
station  is  reached,  the  frame  should  be  readjusted  to 
a  greater  slant. 

A  small  steel  wire,  such  as  is  used  in  wrapping  brooms, 


Figure  95,     Triangular  tile  drain  grader. 


206 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


stretched  from  station  to  station,  50,  or  even  100,  or  more, 
feet  apart,  and  placed  at  a  given  distance  above  the 
desired  grade,  serves  as  a  line  from  which  to  measure 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  The  ends  of  the  wire 
can  be  placed  at  the  same  distance  above  the  desired 
grade  and  parallel  to  it.  The  depth  for  the  ditch  at  each 
point  being  known,  the  wire  can  be  attached  to  each 
stake  high  enough  to  make  the  wire  a  given  distance 
above  the  desired  bottom  of  the  ditch,  say  7  feet.  It 
will  be  convenient  to  have  it  high  enough  to  be  out  of 
the  way  of  throwing  out  the  spadeful  of  earth.  To  find 
the  proper  depth  to  make  the  ditch,  an  L-shaped  meas- 


Figure  96.    Grading  frame  used  in  leveling  the  bottom  of  tile  ditches. 


uring  rod  may  be  used  to  measure  down  from  the  wire, 
which  may  be  placed  at  one  side.  By  using  stakes,  as  in 
Figure  loi,  the  wire  can  be  stretched  so  tightly  that 
it  will  not  sag. 

Laying  tiles  in  the  ditch. — Where  the  material  in  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  is  not  too  soft,  laying  by  hand,  as 
shown  at  I,  Figure  94,  is  the  better  way  of  placing  the 
tiles  in  position.  When  placed  by  hand  the  tiles  can  be 
so  turned  and  adjusted  that  the  ends  will  be  sufficiently 
close  together  to  prevent  earth  falling  in  between.  Where 
material  under  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  so  soft  that 
treading  on  the  tiles  displaces  them,  it  is  necessary  to 


DRAINAGE 


207 


Figure  97.     Mason's  level. 


lay  the  tiles  with  the  tile  hook,  as  shown  at  K,  Figure  94. 

By  exercising  a  little  dexterity,  the  tiles  can  be  placed, 

and   even   revolved   on 

the  hook,  so  as  to  make 

the  unions  fairly  tight. 

There  is  rarely  danger 

of  having  the  ends  too 

close     together,     as     a 

very  narrow  opening  will  allow  the  water  to  enter.     As 

soon  as  the  tiles  are  laid,  they  should  be  covered  with  a 

few  inches  of  earth  and  tramped  so  that  they  will  not 

be  displaced.  If  the  earth 
forming  the  side  of  the 
ditch  is  not  fine  sand,  or 
if  it  has  sufficient  clay  in 
it  to  bind  well,  sufficient 
to  pack  about  the  tiles 
can  be  cut  loose  with  the 
spade  by  the  workman 
standing  in  the  ditch  and 
tramped  firmly  about  the 
tiles. 

Where  the  branches 
lead  off  from  the  line  of 
the  ditch,  the  unions 
should  be  carefully  made. 
Union  tiles,  as  shown  in 
Figures  75  and  J  "j, 
are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Where  these  are 
not  available,  as  in  case 
of  breakage   or  long  dis- 


Figure  98.  Shows  the  manner  of  marking  the 
upright  of  Figure  96  so  that  the  holes  may  be 
bored  at  the  desired  distance  apart.  A  horizon- 
tal line  is  drawn  through  the  center  of  the  hole 
which  supports  the  top  board  when  it  is  par- 
allel to  the  bottom  board,  and  another  at  each 
Inch  further  down  for  several  inches.  Then  each 
Inch  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts  by  lines 
and  three  vertical  lines  are  drawn  an  inch  or 
more  apart.  By  boring  a  hole  at  each  inter- 
section, the  holes  are  made  at  intervals  of  one- 
third  of  an  inch  apart,  sufficient  to  give  an  added  tanre  from  fartorv  unions 
rise  in  the  grade  of  2  inches  per  100  feet,  the  ^^^^^^  iiUUl  idCLUiJ,  U111UU5. 
bottom  board  being  16%  feet  long.  ^^^     ^C     made     by     CUttiug 

a  hole  with  a  cold  chisel  in  a  tile  on  the  main  line  and 
fitting  to  this  hole  the  end  of  a  tile  on  the  branch  line. 


210 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


This  is  rather  expensive,  as  the  labor  is  considerable, 
and  several  tiles  may  be  broken  in  the  attempt  to  make 
the  desired  fitting.  To  insure  a  close  joint,  broken 
pieces  of  tile  or  stones  may  be  laid  or  fitted  about  the 
rather  crude  opening. 

Protecting  the  tiles  from  the  roots  of  trees. — Where 
the  line  of  drain  tile  passes  under  a  willow  hedge  or  near 
other  trees  the  roots  of  which  grow  readily  in  wet 
ground,  there  is  danger  that  the  roots  may  enter  between 

the  ends  of  the 
tiles  and  by 
branching  within 
the  drain  close 
it  up  so  as  to 
stop  the  flow  of 
water.  Bunches 
of  roots  thus 
formed  within  a 
tile  drain  are 
shown  in  Figure 
105.  By  using 
sewer  tiles  with  shoulders,  and  closing  the  ends  with 
cement,  these  roots  may  be  kept  out.  This,  of  course, 
is  not  desired  in  land  needing  drainage,  since  the  water 
could  not  penetrate  into  the  tiles,  and  is  only  necessary 
to  thus  protect  a  length  of  several  rods  where  a  tile  drain 
must  carry  its 
water  past  trees. 
Filling  the 
ditch. — In  some 
instances,  the 
hand  shovel  is 
the  most  practical 
tool  to  use  in  filling  the  tile  ditch.  The  slush  scraper, 
as  shown  in  Figure  106,  may  be  used  to  advantage.  A 
chain,  10  or  more  feet  long,  is  necessary  that  the  team 


Figure  101.  The  depth  of  the  ditch  having  been  recorded  on 
the  stake  at  each  station,  or  only  in  the  notes,  measurement  can 
be  made  from  the  station  to  a  given  point  above  the  proposed 
bottom  for  the  drain,  say  7  feet,  and  a  small  steel  wire,  "broom 
wire,"  can  be  stretched  between  the  two  stations  parallel  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch.  It  is  then  a  simple  matter  to  measure  down 
with  an  L'-shaped  measure  set  to  determine  the  proper  depth  to 
grade  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  with  a  tile  hoe. 


Figure  102.    Quiet  water  in  a  sag  in  a  drain  tUe  allows  sedi- 
ment to  settle  there  and  clog  the  drain. 


DRAINAGE 


211 


may  be  backed  up  near  to  the  ditch.  Where  the 
ground  is  solid,  the  eveners  may  be  carried  on  the  front 
wheels  of  a  wagon,  or  better  still,"  by  means  of  the  hind 
wheels  of  the  wagon,  supplied  with  a  tongue.  The  hind 
wheels  being  larger  can  be  backed  up  more  easily.  One 
man  can  some- 
times do  this 
work,  but  a 
second  man  is 
usually  neces- 
sary to  drive  the 
team,  at  least 
until  it  is  taught 
to  turn  and  back 
at  command.  A 
specially  con- 
structed scraper, 
as  shown  in 
Figure  107,  with 
a  long  tongue, 
can  also  be  used 
in  filling  a  ditch 
by  having  the 
team  on  the  op- 
posite side  of 
the  ditch  from 
the  ridge  of  ex- 
cavated earth. 
Some  reversible 
road  machines 
are  so  built  that 
they  can  be  used 

to  fill  the  ditch  very  cheaply,  as  shown  in  Figure  108. 
Before  filling  with  team  power,  the  tiles  should  be 
covered  by  a  workman  who  fills  in  several  inches  of 
earth  and  treads  it  firmly  about  the  tiles. 


Fiprure    103.     Agricultural   high    school   students   laying   tile 
drains,  showing  how  a  man  can  get  down  into  a  narrow  ditch. 


212  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Opening  the  ditches  with  machinery. — In  a  previous 

paragraph,  plowing  out  furrows  with  the  common  plow 

was  advised;    in  some  cases  the  capstan  ditching  plow 

can  be  used  for  throwing  out  the  first  i8  to  24  inches  of 

earth,  thus  greatly  lessening  the  amount  of  hand  digging 

for  tile  drains. 

Tile-ditching  machines  which  throw   the   dirt  to  one 

side  of  the  ditch  have  been  invented,  and  some  of  them 

have  been  used  with  more  or  less  success. 

Others  have  been  devised  to  carry  the  dirt 

backward  and  throw  it  again  in  the  ditch 

behind  a  man  who  lays  the  tiles ;  and  still 

others    which   automatically  lay  the   tiles 

have  also  been  projected  and  made  almost 

successful    in    soils    which    are    free    from 

stones  and  on  which  the  machine  can  be 

run  without  sinking  too  deeply  into  soft 

earth. 

The  grade  of  the  bottom  of  the  tile  is 

Figure  104.     Tile  controllcd,  iu  case  of  machines  for  open- 
hook,   handle  7  feet  '  ^ 

long,  hook  10  inches  j^g  the  drain,  by  means  of  levels  marked 
on  stakes,  above  the  line  of  the  ditch, 
with  cross  bars  at  a  given  distance  above  the  desired 
grade  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  the  operator  on  the 
machine  keeping  the  depth  of  the  ditching  device  under 
control  by  sighting  from  a  point  on  the  machine  to 
these  cross  bars  of  the  successive  stakes.  Figure  no 
shows  a  mole  tile-ditching  machine  with  attachment. 
A,  capstan;  B,  mole  ditching  machine;  X,  man  control- 
ling grade  of  the  drain  with  a  wheel  and  keeping  the 
marker,  mounted  on  the  mole  coulter  in  line  with 
markers,  O-P,  on  two  stakes  so  placed  as  to  be  parallel 
with  the  line  of  the  desired  grade.  A  man  sitting  in  a 
pit  lays  tiles  on  the  steel  ribbon,  F,  which  is  attached  to 
the  large  steel  mole,  M,  and  they  are  drawn  into  place. 
These    pits   are    placed    every    50    or    100    feet.     These 


DRAINAGE 


213 


mctchfnes  have  not  had  extensive  use.  Capstan  mole 
ditchin^CT  machines  without  tiles  are  also  sometimes  used 
in  tough  clay  subsoils,  in  which  the  drain  may  remain 
open  for  some  time. 

Outlets  and  silt  wells. — Outlets  need  to  be  carefully 
arranged,  so  that  stock  coming  to  the  mouth  of  the  drain 


Figure  105,     Masses  of  maple  roots  taken  from  3-iuch  drain  tiies. 

to  drink  cannot  disturb  the  ends  of  the  tiles  by 
tramping,  and  it  is  wise  to  place  a  wire  screen  over  the 
opening,  that  rabbits  and  other  small  animals  may  be 
kept  out  of  the  drains.  Stones  laid  at  the  outlet,  or 
masonry  built  at  this   point,   are   sometimes   necessary. 


214 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  106,     Filling  tile  ditch  with  drag  or  slush  scraper. 

In  other  places,  instead  of  the  tiles  coming  entirely  to 
the  end  of  the  drain,  the  last  lo  feet  may  be  a 
board  box  which  cannot  easily  be  displaced  by  animals 
tramping  upon  it.  In  cases  where  the  outlet  of  the  tile 
drain  must  be  very  low  and  there  is  very  great  need  of 


Figure  107.    FUIing  tile  ditch  with  an  especially  constructed  scraper.. 


DRAINAGE 


215 


keeping  the  ditch  below  it  clear,  it  is  necessary  to  build 
a  fence  to  keep  hogs  and  other  anirnals  from  inter- 
fering. 

Cost  of  laying  tile  drains. — Where  labor  costs  $1.25  to 
$1.50  per  day,  the  cost,  though  varying  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent soils,  is  approximately  10  cents  per  rod  for  each 
foot  of  depth  for  tiles  laid  2  to  5  feet  deep,  where  the 
work  is  all  done  by  hand.  Experienced  ditchers  can 
make  good  wages  at  this  price,  while  inexperienced 
men  will  find  it  very  hard  to  make  moderate  wages. 
Where  machinery  can  be  used  for  part  of  the  work, 
the  cost  can  be  materially  reduced.  In  laying  3  and  4- 
inch  tiles  that  cost  an  average  of  $10  per  thousand,  or 
one  cent  per  foot,  the  cost  of  the  tile  per  rod  of 
ditch  is  16^  cents.  The  cost  of  digging  an  average 
ditch  33^  feet  deep  is 
35  cents,  making  a  total 
of  51/^  cents  per  rod 
for  the  completed  ditch. 
Where  the  tiles  must 
be  shipped  on  railways 
the  cost  will  be  con- 
siderably higher,  and 
for  larger  sizes  of  tile 
the  cost  is  greater. 
(See  Cost  of  Drain 
Tiles,  page  169.) 

The  cost  per  acre. — 
The  cost  per  acre 
where  tiles  are  laid  at  regular  intervals  apart  can  be 
closely  estimated  by  using  the  prices  per  thousand  for 
drain  tiles  and  adding  to  this  the  above  estimates  for 
the  cost  of  labor.  There  are  many  cases  where  tile 
drains  are  economical  where  it  is  difficult  to  figure  the 
cost  per  acre,  since  instead  of  systematically  covering 
flat  areas,  the  drain  follows  some  low  slough  or  carries 


Figure  108.     Filling  the  tile  ditch  with  the  re- 
versible road  machine. 


2l6 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


the  water  from  some  low  or  otherwise  bothersome  spot 
in  the  field.  Here  the  cost  and  probable  benefit  must  be 
compared  in  some  general  way,  rather  than  by  using 
the  acre  as  the  unit. 


MAKING  OPEN  DRAINS 


Capstan  plow  ditchers. — Very  large  ditching  plows  are 
used  for  making  open  ditches  in  sloughs  and  in  level 
lands  where  there  are  long  stretches  of  alluvial  till  or 


Figure  109.     Tile-ditching  macliine  opening  a  4-foot  ditcli. 

clay  sufficiently  free  from  stones  to  cause  no  serious 
interference  to  the  coulters  or  lay  of  the  capstan  plow 
ditcher.  Generally,  the  power  can  be  applied  in  a  direct 
line  from  the  capstan  to  the  machine.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, the  capstan  set  in  a  direct  line  with  the  line  of  the 
ditch  and  directly  in  front  of  the  machine  will  not  give 
good  footing  to  the  horses  or  oxen  on  the  capstan  sweep, 
and  it  is  necessary,  by  means  of  heavy  stakes  set  in  the 


DRAINAGE 


217 


ground,  to  locate  a  pulley  firmly  in  the  line  of  the  ditch 
around  which  the  cable  can  pass  to  drier  land  where 
the  horses  or  oxen  can  operate  the  capstan.  These 
same  ditching  plows  are  sometimes  drawn  by  twenty 
to  thirty  oxen  working  in  pairs  or  four-ox  teams,  the 
teams  arranged  tandem  on  the  cable.  The  oxen  can 
pull  through  rather  soft  land ;  yet  where  the  mud  is  too 
de&p,  a  long  cable  must  be  used  and  by  passing  it 
around  a   pulley,   as   before   mentioned,   the   cattle   may 


Figure  110.      Mole  ditcher. 

do  their  pulling  on  solid  ground  on  one  side  of  the 
line  of  ditch. 

In  tough  soils  the  ditches  will  remain  effective  for 
several  years,  but  finally  fill  up  and  become  of  little 
service.  Such  surface  drains  should  be  placed  at  one 
side  rather  than  on  the  center  of  the  line,  where  a  per- 
manent drain  should  some  time  be  placed.  A  ragged 
open  drain  is  much  in  the  way  in  making  a  permanent 
tile  drain.  It  is  often  much  easier  to  construct  the 
permanent  drain  on  a  new  line  where  the  soil  and  sur- 
face are  uniform. 

Ditches  may  be  made  with  these  implements  at  a 
very  low  cost,  often  at  lo  cents  per  rod,  or  even  less. 
These  ditches  will  sometimes  last  for  a  dozen  years,  or 


2l8 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Outlet  to  tile  drain  or  to  earthen 


until  the  farmer  can  afford  a  broader  open  ditch;    or 
still   better,   a   tile   drain.     In   making  ditches   with   the 

capstan  ditching  plow, 


care  should  be  used  to 
have  the  grade  uniform 
so  that  the  water  will 
run  with  equal  rapidity 
throughout  the  varit)us 
parts  of  the  drain,  as 
this  insures  more  rapid 
removal  of  the  water 
and  it  also  prevents  the 
excessive  washing 
which  is  apt  to  occur 
at  points  of  the  steepest 
grades.  Wherever  washing  occurs,  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  debris  cut  loose  from  the  bank,  and  this  debris 
and  other  debris 
washed  in  from  sur- 
rounding land  is  car- 
ried forward  and 
deposited  in  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  further  on 
and  eventually  fills  it. 
The  slush  scraper  is 
also  useful  in  opening 
out  large  drains  and  in 
filling  tile  drains. 

The  Fresno  scraper 
is  a  modified  form  of 
the  drag  scraper  much 
used  in  the  western 
states.  It  can  be  ad- 
justed to  shaving  off  a  thin  layer  of  earth  and  to  dis- 
tributing in  a  thin  layer.  It  has  a  great  advantage  over 
the  slush  scraper  in  moving  earth  down  grade,  because 


Figure  112.    Outlet  to  drain  protected  by  masonry. 


DRAINAGE 


219 


more  than  enough  to  fill  the  scraper  can  be  shoved 
forward.  It  is  made  in  two  and  four-horse  sizes,  and 
should  be  rapidly  introduced. 

The  wheel  scraper  is  an  improved  form  of  the  scraper 
mounted  on  wheels,  and  is  adapted  to  work  where  the 
earth  must  be  drawn  longer  distances  than  will  warrant 
the  economical  use  of  the  slush  or  the  Fresno  scraper. 

The  common  field  plow  and  the  heavy  road  grading 
plow  are  sometimes  used  in  opening  out  the  first  portion 
of  small  drains  and  loosening  the  earth  in  large  ditches 


Figure  113.  Outlet  which  of  necessity  opens  under  the  surface  of  a  stream  or  pond, 
thus  endangering  the  tiles  from  splitting  by  freezing,  when  filled  with  water.  A  few 
rods  of  the  drain  next  to  the  outlet  might  better  be  made  of  oak  boards  nailed 
together  so  as  to  form  a  square  box. 

where  other  machinery  or  even  spades  are  used  to  take 
up  the  loosened  earth. 

The  reversible  road  machine  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  very  important  implement  in  making  open 
drains.  With  this  machine,  broad,  flat  drains  can  be 
made  which  will  carry  large  volumes  of  water  and  which 
can  easily  be  cleaned  out  by  using  the  same  machine. 
In  many  cases  crops  can  be  grown  over  the  banks  and 
within  the  broad  flat  ditches,  thus  making  the  drain 
useful  for  removing  the  flood  water  without  seriously 
injuring  the  area  useful  for  the  common  crops  of  the 
field.  In  other  cases,  these  broad,  flat  drains  may  be 
sown  to  permanent  grass  and  mowed  two  or  more  times 
annually.     This   insures   a   ditch   free   from   debris   and 


220 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


often  crops  of  valuable  forage.     Since  the  use  of  road 

machines  is  described  more  in  detail  under  the  heading 

of  road  making,  a  discussion 
of  their  operation  will  not  be 
necessary  here.  In  Figure 
Ii8  is  shown  the  cross- 
section  of  a  ditch  made  with 
a  reversible  road  machine 
where  it  is  desirable  to  have 
the  ditch  next  to  a  fence  with 
one  side  not  rounded  so  as  to 
be  crossed  with  teams  and  im- 
plements. The  side  next  to 
the  fence  can  be  left  nearly 
vertical,  as  at  A;  it  can  be 
made  slanting,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  line,  B ;  or,  if  it  is  de- 
sired even  thus  close  to  the 
fence,  it  can  be  made  rounded 
as  at  the  dotted  line,  C.  The 
earth  taken  from  the  ditch  can 
be  left  in  a  sharp  ridge,  as  at 
D;  can  be  thrown  up  into  a 
rounded  form,  as  at  F;  or  can 
even    be    smoothed    down    by 

carrying  it  back  on  the  adjacent  land,  as  at   E.     This 

class  of  machine  is  not  adapted  to  making  very  heavy 

ditches,  though,  in  many  cases, 

the  upper  portion  of  the  ditch 

may   be   opened   by   means   of 

the  road  machine. 

The  elevating  grader  is  very 

useful  in  opening  large  drainage  canals.     This  machine 

does  heavy  work  at  a  comparatively  low  cost  per  cubic 

yard  of  earth  handled. 

Ditching    plow. — A    very    strongly    constructed    plow 


Figure  114.  General  plan  of  a  siH 
well,  two  branch  tiles  entering  and 
main  discharging.  The  silt  accumu- 
lating at  O  by  settling  in  the  nearly 
QUiet  water  should  be  cleaned  out  as 
required,  lifting  the  stone.  X,  for  that 
purpose. 


Figure  115.     Drag  or  slush  scraper. 


DRAINAGE 


221 


Figure  115a.    Fresno  scraper. 


made  to  resemble  somewhat  the  common  stubble  plow 
and  very  useful  in  drainage  operations.  Either  this  or  the 
common  plow  is  often  used  to  break  up  the  soil  before 
carrying  it  to  one  side  with  the  reversible  machine,  or 


Figure  116.     Wheel  scraper,  lowered  for  filling. 


picking  it  up  with  the  wheel  or  slush  scraper,  or  throw- 
ing it  into  wagons  with  the  shovel  or  spade. 

Vertical  and  special  drains. — While  most  farm  drainage 
can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  either  open  drains  or 


222 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  117.     Reversible  road  machine  making  lateral  ditches  which  run  into  a  large 
drainage  canal  made  beyond  by  the  elevating  grader. 


tile  drains,  there  are  other  forms  of  drains  which  are 
useful  for  special  conditions.  Drainage  wells  are  useful 
where  vertical  drains  can  be  made  cheaply  through 
impervious  layers  of  clay  or  stone  which  hold  the  water 

in  the  saucer-shaped 
area,  thus  carrying  the 
water  downward  into 
the  nonwater-bearing 
stratum  of  gravel  or 
sand  below.  In  Figure 
131  the  hills  surround- 
ing the  low  area  are  so 
high  that  a  horizontal 
drain  under  the  ad- 
joining hill  would  be 
very  expensive.  A  well 
is  sunk  at  one  side,  or  if  a  dry  time  can  be  found  when 
the  low  area  is  dry,  the  well  can  be  sunk  in  the  midst  of 
the  wet  area.     Drain  tiles,  laid  from  i  to  3  feet  under- 


Figure  IIS.  Showing  forms  of  ditch  beside  a 
fence  line,  as  at  the  side  of  a  puhlic  highway. 
A-D,  ditch  made  with  steep  bank  and  dirt  left  in 
high  ridge.  B-F,  ditch  made  with  slanting  outer 
bank  and  ridge  rounded  down.  C-E,  ditch 
rounded  and  earth  spread  out  so  that  land  can  be 
mowed  or  even  cultivated  to  the  roadway,  as  at  P. 


DRAINAGE 


223 


neath  the  surface,  receive  the  water,  thoroughly  filtered 
and  clear  of  sediment,  and  carry  it  to  the  drainage  well 
by  which  it  is  carried  through  the  impervious  layer  and 


Figure  119.     Elevating  grader  opening  large  ditch. 

enters  the  loose  gravel  or  sand  layer  below.  If  the 
water  were  allowed  to  run  from  the  surface  into  the 
drainage  well,  so  much  debris  would  be  carried  in  that 
the  well  would  soon  become  clogged  and  water  would 


Figure  120.  Floating  dredge.  Longitudinal  view  showing  scoop  taking  earth  out  of 
the  ditch  in  front  of  the  boat.  Cross-section  showing  scoop  iki  position  to  deposit 
earth  on  the  bank  of  the  canal. 


no  longer  sink  freely  through  it.  However,  in  some 
instances,  where  the  impervious  layer  is  near  the  sur- 
face and  is  not  thick,  drainage  wells  may  be  left  open 


224 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


to  receive  the  surface  water,  and  as  soon  as  one  is 
clogged  up  another  can  be  dug.  Where  these  drain- 
age wells  must  be 
dug  to  a  considerable 
depth,  they  must  be 
walled  with  brick, 
stone,  sewer  pipe,  iron 
pipe,  or  even  with 
tubing  made  of  boards. 
In  case  of  expensive 
wells,    they   should   be 


Figure  121.     Open  ditch  with  banks  1  to  1,  A-A; 
1%  to  1,  B-B;  and  2  to  1.  C-C. 


very  carefully 
gu  ar d  e  d  at 
the  surface 
to  avoid  the 
entrance  of 
dirt,  and  the 
tile  drains 
leading  into 
them  should 
be     so     con- 


Figure  122.     Proper  form  of  surface  ditch  where  earth  is  firm. 


structed  that  all 
water  coming 
into  the  wells 
may  be  most 
thoroughly  fil- 
tered by  first 
passing  down- 
ward through 
a  few  feet  of 
soil.  It  is  es- 
sential to  know 
that  the 
stratum  into  which  the  water  is  to  be  drained  has  an 
outlet  and  sufficient  carrying  or  storage  capacity  at  all 
times    to    care    for    the    water    which    will    be    brought 


.   Figure  123.     Cross-section  of  ditch  made  with  capstan  ditch- 
ing plow. 


DRAINAGE 


225 


to    it.     This    cannot    be    determined    by   the    effects    of 

drainage  wells  upon  other  similar  strata,  but  only  by  a 

knowledge  of  the  very 

same    bed    of    material 

which      receives      the 

drainage      for      which 

disposal  is   sought. 

Sewers  used  to  drain 
lands. — In  some  situa- 
ations  outlets  for  open 
drains  can  be  secured 
only  with  difficulty. 
The  water  must  be  car- 


Figure  124.  The  dotted  lines  mark  the  cross- 
section  of  a  deep,  narrow  ditch  made  with  a  ditch- 
ing plow,  and  the  wavy  line  the  angle  of  repose 
sought  by  the  banks  when  they  have  fallen  in. 


ried  long  distances 
through  neighboring 
fields  or  along  road- 
ways, and  possibly  the 
fall  is  insufficient  to 
allow  the  water  to  run 
off  freely.  A  deep  drain 
through  an  adjacent 
portion  of  higher  land, 
with  a  low  area  on  the 

Figure    125.     Cross-section    of    ditch    through    soil     OPPOSitC    sidc,    may  prO- 
which  tumbles  or  is  washed  m  easily.  .  ^  1 

Vide  a  short  but  ex- 
pensive outlet  in  the 
form  of  an  open  ditch 
or  a  covered  sewer.  In 
this  case,  the  sewer  is 
not  only  less  expen- 
sive, but  sometimes 
better  than  the 
wide      open      ditch, 

the  tiles  and  narrow  ditch  costing  less  than  the 
open  ditch.  Either  drain  tile  or  sewer  tile  may 
be     thus     used     to     receive     surface     water     at     the 


Figure    126.     Cross-section    of    ditch    made    with 
spade  through  peaty  soil. 


226 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


upper  end,  if  sufficient  fall  can  be  provided  so  that 
the  water  will  run  with  rapidity  and  make  the  ditch 
clean  itself  of  silt  and  not  become  clogged.     The  distinc- 


,  T-fl^<4^B 


Figure   127.     Narrow   deep  ditch   with  braced  poles  protecting 
the  sides  from  washing. 


tion  between  a  sewer  and  an  underdrain  may  be  stated 
as  follows:  The  sewer  receives  surface  water  contain- 
ing solid  materials,  while  the  underdrain,  the  upper  end 
of  which  is  usually  closed  by  a  stone  or  broken  piece  of 


Figure    128.     A,    drainage    well    beside    a    pond. 
Ing  water  from  the  pond   into   the  well. 


tile    drains    conduct- 


DRAINAGE 


227 


Figure  129.  Drainage  well  beside  pond;  B, 
tile  drain  discharging  into  drainage  well;  C, 
porous  earth;  D,  impervious  stratum  through 
which  the  water  cannot  sink;  E,  layer  of  gravel 
into  which  the  water  entering  the  well  will  sink. 


tile,  receives  its  water  only  after  it  has  filtered  through 
a  few  feet  of  soil  and  carries  very  little  solid  sediment. 
In  cold  countries,  the  sewer  will  sometimes  allow  the 
water  to  flow  through 
much  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  will  the 
deep  open  drain  under 
the  conditions  just  men- 
tioned, since  the  ice  and 
snow  that  will  accumu- 
late in  the  deep  ditch 
must  be  melted  before 
the  accumulated  water 
can  begin  to  flow.  This  difference  often  makes  it  wise 
to  use  the  sewer  rather  than  the  open  drain  in  carrying 
surface  water  through  higher  portions  of  land.     The  cost, 

however,  must  be  very  care- 
fully calculated  because  large 
tiles  and  the  deep  excavations 
for  such  sewers  are  expensive. 
Stone  and  board  drains. — 
In  the  earlier  history  of  drain- 
age, before  earthen  tiles  were 
used,  stone  and  wood,  and 
even  pieces  of  sod  and  peat, 
were  used  in  the  construction 
of  underdrains.  In  Figure 
131  are  shown  drains  made 
of  stone  laid  in  different  ways. 
In  Figure  132  is  shown  the  V- 
shaped  drain  in  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  covered  with  a  plank 
laid  on  shoulders  of  earth,  this 
plank  sustaining  the  weight  of 

Figure  130.    Vertical  outlet  for  tile        the      earth      thrOWU      back      iutO 
drains     through     impervious    stratum  i  »•       t  -i 

into  stratum  which  will  receive  the     the  ditch,  also  Other  methods 

water  from  the  tile  drains.  '  ^ 


228 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


of    using    stones    and    boards    in    making    underdrains. 

Underdraining    peaty    lands. — Instead    of    tiles     laid 

in   the   bottom   of   the   ditch   in   peaty   soils,   continuous 

bundles   of   crooked   hardwood   poles   are   sometimes   so 

laid  that  the 
water  can  pass 
among  them 
and  thus  run 
off.  See  Figures 
133     and      134. 

Figure    131.     Drains    made    by    laying    floor    stones    in    bottom  Where  t  h  e  S  6 
of  the  ditch,   and  covering  either  by  laying  cover  stone  on  wall 

stone,  as  at  A,   by  leaning  two  stones  together,   as  at  B,   or  by  Hraiim  are     laid 

constructing  an  arch  of  small  stones,   as  at  C.  yictiiia  cti  c     laiu 

in  peaty  lands 
covered  with  heather,  or  with  other  low  shrubs,  small 
woody  plants  can  be  used  to  place  first  over  the  bundles 
of  poles  thus  preventing  the  rotted  peat,  with  which  the 
remainder  of  the  ditch  is  filled,  from  sifting  down  among 

the    poles    and  

clogging  the 
drain.  In  many 
cases  the  tiles 
may  be  laid  at 
sufficient  depth 
to  be  in  the 
hard  ground 
beneath  the 
peat. 

Dikes,  pumps 
and  gate  s. — 

As  our  lands  become  more  valuable  the  reclamation  of 
fields  now  covered  with  water,  at  the  edge  of  lakes,  along 
rivers,  or  bordering  on  the  ocean,  will  repay  for  drain- 
ing. Here  dikes  to  keep  out  the  flood  water  are  some- 
times necessary.  These  can  be  thrown  up  by  means  of 
machinery  heretofore  mentioned,  as  in  Figure  120.  In 
case  of  heavy  grading  works,  tram  cars  drawn  by  horses, 


A 

B 

C                                  D 

^-^r^fn--'^-'    -^'^p^' 

V 

*.'    ' 

L                        <<>;' 

w^m^, ,'.". 

:  -^'''^"r^^y  '/^  ^^<#  ^''' 

-. :.,......;,  .r,  tJ.rz^^m 

Figure  132.  A,  drain  made  by  covering  a  V-shaped  groove 
in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  by  a  board  resting  ou  siioulders 
and  supporting  tlie  eartli  returned  to  tlie  ditch.  B.  C,  D, 
other  methods  of  securing  free  drainage  without  tiles. 


DRAINAGE 


229 


or  by  other  power,  may  be  the  practical  means  of  moving 
the  earth.  The  immense  dikes,  in  part  built  generations 
ago,  reclaiming  large  portions  of  Holland,  have  thor- 
oughly demon- 
strated that  if 
the  area  is 
large  very  ex- 
pensive drains 
may  be  eco- 
nomical. Along 
the  Mississippi 
river  immense 
areas  have  been 
reclaimed  from 
flooding         b  y 

1       .■,■,.  J.,  Figure  133. 

buikhng-    dikes,  u^  „  r    -         -u 

^  '  or      levees,      connnmg    the 

waters  to  the  natural  chan- 
nel. Along  many  of  our 
streams,  beside  lakes  and 
along  the  ocean  coast  lines, 
there  are  large  areas  which 
are  occasionally  flooded  or 
are  daily  afifected  by  high 
tide,  and  as  great  damage 
often  results  to  the  growing 
crops,  their  use  for  farms  is 
not  practicable  without  con- 
trol of  the  water.  In  Figures 
135,  143  and  144,  with  the 
subjoined  notes,  is  shown 
how  drainage  and  irrigation 
may  be  combined.  By  dik- 
ing and  draining  with  open 
and  tile  ditches  to  a  pit  from 
which  the  water  is  pumped 


Figure  134. 
Figures  133  and  134.       Longitudinal  and 
cross-sections  of  pole  drain  in  peaty  land. 
X,   poles;  Y,  heatlier  or  other  small  shrubs 
or   small   branches   of   trees; 
filling  the  ditch. 


c,  peat^  soil  into  the  lake,  Fields  H  and  I, 


230 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  143,  are  transformed  into  arable  land.  Here  the 
same  pump  serves  for  both  drainage  and  irrigation. 
This  is  a  small  illustration  of  how  drainage  is  carried 
out  on  a  large  scale  in  districts  with  lands  subject  to 
flooding  from  ocean,  lake  or  river;  and  it  serves  also  to 
show  how  irrigation  may  be  economically  arranged  on 
some  lands  in  countries  subject  to  an  occasional  drouth. 
In  some  cases,  co-operative  associations  are  able  to 
undertake  the  construction  of  these  dikes ;  in  other  cases, 

the  county, 
state,  or  even 
the  natior^ 
must  co-oper- 
ate in  their  con- 
struction and 
maintenance. 
Where     diking 

Figure   135.     S,   roadway   and   embankment  between   low   area  •          ^lonp       fli^rp 

and  stream  which  discharges  into  the  lake;  E,  pumping  engine;  ^^       uuiic       Luci  c 

T,    pit   into   which   drains   discharge   and   from   which   tiie  water  ,v./^*,r»-«1U, 

is  pumped;  W,   water  discharging  into  the  lake;  N,   open  ditch  are           generally 

flowing  into  the  pit;  X.   embankment  beside  the  lake.  , 

some  supple- 
mentary arrangements  necessary  for  taking  care  of  the 
water  from  the  rainfall,  and  also  of  the  flood  water  from 
drainage  areas  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  from 
which  the  main  flood  water  is  held  back  by  dikes.  In 
some  cases,  water  can  be  drained  oflf  in  open  ditches 
nearly  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  dike,  and  follow  the  river 
to  a  lower  level.  In  other  cases,  as  along  lakes  and  by 
coast  waters,  there  is  no  opportunity  for  carrying  off 
this  surface  and  flood  water,  except  by  elevating  it  to  the 
other  side  of  the  dike  by  means  of  machinery  operated 
by  wind,  steam  or  other  cheap  power.  The  engineering 
problems  of  diking  and  drainage  to  elevating  stations, 
while  representing  large  interests,  do  not  present  un- 
usual difficulties.  As  a  rule,  the  most  difficult  problem 
is  to  determine  the  relation  between  cost  and  benefit, 
though  in  many  cases  in  America,  as  well  as  in  other 


DRAINAGE  23  T 

countries,  there  are  extensive  areas  where  the  cost  of 
diking  would  be  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  increased 
value  of  the  reclaimed  land.  Back  water  gates  are  often 
necessary  where  diking  and  draining  are  combined. 
Where  fresh  water  is  kept  off  the  land  by  means  of 
dikes,  a  system  of  irrigation  often  can  readily  be  intro- 
duced in  combination  with  the  drainage. 

Open  drains  should  be  kept  free  from  obstructions,  such 
as  grass,  growing  weeds  and  weeds  blown  in  from  sur- 
rounding fields.  The  accumulations  which  arise  from 
banks  caving  in,  or  from  earth  or  material  washed  into 
the  ditch  by  water  or  blown  in  by  the  wind,  as  dust  from 
plowed  lands,  should  be  early  removed,  since  obstructions 
of  this  kind  tend  to  accumulate  still  more  of  similar  ma- 
terials. The  grade  should  be  kept  uniform  that  any 
sediment  coming  into  the  running  water  may  be  carried 
on  to  the  outlet.  Thus,  in  a  ditch  carrying  considerable 
water,  a  slushing  device  which  will  stir  up  the  loose 
mud  and  help  the  water  carry  it  forward  is  sometimes  a 
practical  means  of  clearing  the  ditch.  In  some  cases  a 
device  with  shovels,  as  those  from  a  common  cultivator, 
will  answer.  A  broad  board  faced  with  a  steel  cutting 
edge  and  held  upright  by  means  of  a  tongue  or  by  han- 
dles, is  sometimes  used.  This  kind  of  a  device  will  not 
work  well  except  where  there  is  current  enough  to  carry 
the  dirt  forward,  as  finely  divided  particles,  in  the  water. 
Much  depends  upon  the  kind  of  soil  also.  Some  kinds 
of  fine  clay  may  thus  be  carried  off  rapidly  in  the  water. 

Tile  drains  should  be  inspected  occasionally.  The 
outlet  should  be  visited  to  learn  whether  the  water  is 
running  freely.  In  cases  where  portions  of  drains  have 
been  laid  through  quicksand,  which  may  filter  in  and  fill 
the  tiles,  or  where  for  other  special  reasons  clogging  is 
feared,  investigations  are  occasionally  necessary  to  see 
that  all  parts  of  the  drains  are  carrying  away  the  sur- 
plus water.     Silt  wells^  or  even  peep  holes^  aid  in  this 


232  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

inspection.  Tile  drains  which  are  no  longer  working 
must  be  dug  up  and  repaired.  Thus  drains  which  have 
been  clogged  by  roots  of  trees  growing  in  and  filling  them 
with  the  fibrous  mass,  must  be  taken  up  or,  if  the  trees 
must  remain,  sewer  pipes  should  be  laid  with  the  collars 
packed  with  cement.  Properly  laid  tiles  very  rarely  fail 
to  continue  to  be  indefinitely  efficient.  In  a  wide  ex- 
perience the  writer  knows  of  only  relatively  very  few 
tile  drains  which  have  become  obstructed. 

Drainage  education. — Education  in  farm  subjects  is 
now  making  such  rapid  strides  that  anyone  needing  a 
knowledge  of  a  particular  subject  can  find  some  means 
of  gaining  information  along  the  desired  line.  The 
national  government  at  Washington  is  taking  an  active 
part  in  drainage  and  other  rural  engineering  subjects. 
Fifty  or  more  agricultural  colleges  are  dealing  with  the 
subject  of  drainage  from  the  standpoint  of  the  needs  of 
the  respective  states.  Some  of  these  colleges  have  de- 
partments of  agricultural  engineering,  and  in  these  schools 
men  are  trained  with  a  general  knowledge  of  rural  en- 
gineering, who  can  easily  master  the  subject  of  any  drain- 
age project  so  as  to  be  useful  in  planning  and  super- 
intending the  construction  of  large  drainage  and  diking 
enterprises.  Traveling  farmers'  institutes  are  adapted  to 
encouraging  neighborhoods  where  drainage  is  needed  that 
have  not  undertaken  the  reclamation  and  improvement 
of  wet  lands,  giving  the  knowledge,  not  only  of  how  to 
unite  on  some  co-operative  plan,  but  also  the  knowledge 
of  how  to  secure  information  as  to  the  details  of  how 
drains  improve  the  farm  and  how  the  plans  can  be  made 
and  the  construction  be  carried  out.  The  agricultural 
press  contains  articles  on  this  subject  and  agricultural 
editors  will  gladly  answer  questions  from  farmers  as  to 
methods,  etc.  Bulletins  and  reports  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  from  the  state  experi- 
ment stations  and  agricultural  colleges  of  the  different 


DRAINAGE  233 

states,  also  the  annual  reports  of  the  farmers'  institutes 
and  state  agricultural  organizations  contain  reports  on 
the  subject.  Associations  of  manufacturers  of  drain 
tiles,  of  drainage  machinery  and  of  farmers  and  engineers 
interested  in  land  drainage  have  done  much  to  promote 
this  subject. 


CHAPTER  X 

IRRIGATION 

Since  ancient  times,  irrigation  has  been  practiced  in 
semi-arid  and  arid  countries.  Applying  water  to  grow- 
ing crops  by  carrying  it  out  into  the  fields  through 
ditches  and  allowing  it  to  spread  over  and  percolate 
into  the  soil,  has  assumed  immense  proportions  in  the 
more  arid  regions  of  the  United  States.  Even  in  the 
states  further  east  than  the  Mississippi  river,  irrigation 
is  found  very  profitable  under  some  conditions.  The 
national  government  has  inaugurated  a  very  large 
scheme  of  co-operation  in  which,  through  an  organiza- 
tion called  the  Reclamation  Service  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  it  joins  with  many  landowners 
and  aids  prospective  purchasers  of  public  lands  in 
the  construction  of  immense  systems  for  irriga- 
tion. In  some  cases  canals  are  built  taking  water 
directly  from  streams  to  the  land.  In  many  cases  dams 
are  necessary  to  raise  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
streams  from  which  the  water  is  drawn.  In  other  cases 
immense  dams  are  made  to  create  great  storage  reser- 
voirs in  which  supplies  of  water  are  accumulated  to  be 
used  when  the  crops  most  need  them.  The  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  also  is  doing  much  in 
co-operation  with  private  parties  or  organizations  who 
are  irrigating  lands.  This  department  is  aiding  not  only 
in  making  plans  for  irrigation  plants  both  by  the  gravity 
plan,  and  by  pumping  by  wind  or  other  power,  but  it  is 
also  studying  methods  of  distributing  the  water  to  the 
farmers  and  to  their  crops,  and  is  investigating  methods 
of  farm  management  under  irrigation.  The  engineering 
plans  being  worked  out  by  the  Reclamation  Service  alone 
involve  many  millions  of  dollars  and  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the   United   States   Department  of  Agriculture 

234 


IRRIGATION 


235 


will  make  many  thousands  of  irrlg-ated  farms  available 
for  farmers.  Care  is  being  used  that  these  lands  may  be 
divided  into  family  farms  and  thus  made  to  serve  well 
the  largest  possible  number  of  people  and  to  increase 
the  number  of  America's  farm  homes.  This  constitutes 
the  most  extensive  irrigation  scheme  ever  undertaken, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  ambitious  engineering  feats  ever 
entered  upon.  It  is  a  public  enterprise  which  will  again 
prove  the  ability  of  a  republican  form  of  government  to 


Figure  136.     Sliovving  ditch  from  stream,  lake  or  reservoir  tlirougli  excavation,  on  an 
embankment,  across  a  low  area,  and  tlirougli  land  at  grade. 


carry  out  large  national  movements  which  benefit  the 
whole  people.  Through  this  work  the  United  States 
government  is  extending  its  policy,  inaugurated  through 
the  national  homestead  law,  of  dividing  the  land  into 
family  farms. 

Not  only  is  irrigation  profitable  in  arid  and  semi-arid 
countries,  but  also  in  countries  where  the  rainfall  is  not 
evenly  distributed  throughout  those  months  in  which 
crops  make  their  greatest  growth.  Irrigation  on  a  large 
scale   is   practicable   only   where   streams,    lakes,   rivers, 


/^??r- r^iij'iTT^^^^^^j^^ 


Figure  137.    Shovring  ditch  extended  across  a  low  place  through  an  Iron  conduit  sup- 
ported on  trestle  work. 


IRRIGATION  237 

artesian  wells  or  artificial  storage  reservoirs  furnish  large 
supplies  of  water.  Someone  has  illustrated  the  limita- 
tions of  irrigation  in  the  great  arid  West  by  comparing 
the  whole  droughty  plains  and  intermountain  areas  in 
which  the  rainfall  is  light  to  a  twenty-acre  field  with 
one   furrow   plowed   across   it,   the   furrow   representing 


Figure  139.     Portable  engine  used  for  pumping  water  for  flooding  rice  fields  in  Texas. 

that  proportion  of  the  whole  for  which  the  water  is  avail- 
able for  irrigation.  The  semi-arid  area  on  which  dry- 
land farming  must  be  carried  on  is  very  extensive,  and 
farm  management  there  must  be  planned  to  conserve, 
for  the  use  of  crops,  the  small  amount  of  water  annually 
precipitated.  In  many  places  the  windmill,  or  steam  or 
gasoline  engine  to  pump  water  from  wells  upon  limited 
areas,  as  near  buildings,  will  help  make  possible  the 
development  of  a  homelike  farmstead  on  large  ranch-like 


238  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

farms  in  semi-arid  regions,  and  will  give  some  food 
for  man  and  beast,  even  in  the  exceptional  years  of 
least  rainfall,  and  v^ill  help  make  the  farm  pay  in  all 
years. 

In  regions  like  Minnesota,  on  the  other  hand,  the  many 
streams,  the  thousands  of  lakes,  the  large  quantities  of 
available  w^ell  water,  the  less  amounts  of  water  required 
for  irrigation  where  the  rainfall  is  nearly  sufficient,  and 
the  possibility  of  storing  surface  water  in  large  artificial 
reservoirs,  will  make  it  comparatively  easy  to  irrigate 
large  areas  of  land.  Good  lands  have  been  so  cheap  that 
farmers  and  gardeners  have  only  begun  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  at  no  distant  date  the  higher  price  of  lands, 
together  with  the  cheapened  machinery  and  possibly 
cheaper  labor,  will  make  irrigation  profitable  in  many 
places  where  the  rainfall  has  been  heretofore  wholly 
depended  upon. 

Sources  of  water. — The  bulk  of  irrigation  is  now  done 
where  the  water  is  obtained  from  mountain  streams  or 
rivers  so  situated  that  the  water  may  be  led  out,  by  means 
of  canals  and  ditches,  to  lands  which  are  nearly  level,  in 
the  valley  lower  down  the  stream.  These  ditches  are 
usually  laid  out  with  a  very  gentle  slope,  through  the  low 
lands  or  around  the  borders  of  the  hills.  Branches  from 
the  main  canal  are  led  off  to  the  various  tracts  of  land  to 
be  irrigated,  where  the  ditches  are  further  branched  and 
the  water  carried  to  the  farms  and  fields.  In  many 
cases,  lakes  and  reservoirs  are  employed  in  which  to  store 
up  flood  water  for  use  during  the  dry  season  when  the 
water  in  the  streams  is  low.  In  other  cases,  the  storage 
capacity  of  lakes  has  been  very  greatly  increased  by 
means  of  dams  across  their  outlets. 

Storage  reservoirs  are  being  made  in  many  places  by 
building  dams  across  valleys,  thus  conserving  large 
quantities  of  water  which  can  be  led  out  and  spread 
over  the  fields  in  times  of  drought.     As  a  rule,  these 


IRRIGATION  239 

storage  reservoirs  are  filled  by  the  flood  water  which 
naturally  flows  through  the  valley  in  the  springtime, 
but  which  is  saved  up  for  use  in  the  summer.  In  some 
cases  the  water  which  is  used  to  fill  the  reservoirs  is 
provided  by  springs  and  artesian  wells.  These  form 
comparatively  small  streams  during  the  entire  year,  hence 
storage  reservoirs  are  necessary  to  store  up  their  water 
that  it  may  be  available  for  use  in  the  season  of  plant 
growth.  In  some  instances  the  water  from  springs  and 
wells,  instead  of  being  carried  to  tanks  or  other  reser- 
voirs to  be  used  for  garden  and  orchard  crops,  or  even 
for  field  crops,  is  spread  directly  upon  the  fields. 

Where  vegetables,  fruit  or  other  crops  which  bring 
large  amounts  of  money  per  acre,  are  grown,  a  large  ex- 
pense per  acre  can  be  put  into  irrigation  with  profit. 
These  valuable  lands,  under  intensive  cultivation,  require 
a  large  expense  for  seeds,  manures  and  labor.  Rather 
than  risk  the  loss  of  these  investments,  it  is  often  wise 
to  invest  sufficient  money  in  an  irrigation  plant  to  water 
the  crops,  and  thus  insure  the  larger  yields  and  high 
quality  which  will  bring  an  income  sufficient  to  pay  ex- 
penses and  leave  a  larger  profit.  In  dry  years,  when 
other  growers  have  short  crops,  the  farmer  who  is  pre- 
pared to  irrigate  secures  both  a  large  crop  and  high 
prices  for  his  produce. 

Legislation. — A  prominent  jurist  recently  said  that 
irrigation  laws  were  becoming  one  of  the  most  com- 
plicated features  of  American  jurisprudence.  No  at- 
tempt will  here  be  made  to  more  than  analyze  the  gen- 
eral principles  upon  which  these  laws  are  constructed. 
The  water  of  streams  which  passes  through  the  lands  of 
many  owners  is  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  public 
rather  than  to  individual  citizens ;  at  the  same  time,  this 
water  is  for  the  use  of  whoever  can  utilize  it.  Since 
expense  must  be  incurred  in  preparing  to  use  water, 
either  for   irrigation   or  for   power  to   be   employed  in 


240  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

manufacturing,  the  public  must  recognize  that  landown- 
ers who  build  irrigation  ditches,  or  manufacturers 
who  construct  dams,  are  entitled  to  consideration, 
and  that  they  acquire  rights  which  the  public  must 
respect  through  suitable  legislation  and  court  decrees. 
Thus,  if  one  man  or  firm  builds  an  expensive  irrigation 
canal  through  which  is  conveyed  all  the  water  from  a 


Figure  140.     Stationary  engine  raising  water  by  steam  power  on  rice  fields  in  Texas, 
where  thousands  of  acres  are  irrigated  by  means  of  very  large  pumps. 

Stream  and  makes  use  of  it  upon  fields,  a  wrong  would 
be  done  if  another  man  or  firm  were  to  make  a  similar 
irrigation  canal  further  up  the  stream,  thus  intercepting 
the  flow  of  water  and  causing  the  first  party  to  lose  the 
value  of  the  expenditure  in  making  the  first  canal.  The 
second  party,  however,  might  properly  make  a  canal 
further  up  the  stream  if  he  used  only  part  of  the  water, 
allowing  sufficient  to  flow  to  the  first  canal  to  furnish 


IRRIGATION  241 

all  the  water  there  needed.  In  case  of  large  streams 
still  other  canals  can  be  built  and  eventually  the  public 
can  recognize  through  its  laws  and  court  decrees  that 
each  party  has  a  right  to  a  certain  amount  of  water. 

In  case  of  successive  years  of  small  rainfall,  there 
might  be  water  sufficient  only  for  the  needs  of  the 
farmers  along  the  canal  first  built.  In  this  case,  the 
parties  interested  in  the  canals  constructed  at  a  later 
date  must  properly  give  way  and  allow  the  water  to  be 
used  by  the  parties  who  made  the  first  ditch,  even  though 
it  is  further  down  the  stream.  In  years  when  there  is 
not  water  enough  for  all,  the  proper  division  of  the 
available  water  is  a  difficult  matter,  and  in  many  cases 
laws  have  been  designed  .under  which  officials  of  the  state 
act  in  making  an  equitable  division  of  water  according 
to  the  rights  and  needs  of  the  several  parties  interested. 

While  priority  of  right  is  thus  recognized,  it  has  been 
found  difficult  to  frame  laws  under  which  the  rights  of 
all  can  be  respected  and  the  best  interest  of  the  largest 
number  served.  The  land  which  is  available  to  irrigate 
with  any  given  supply  of  water  is  entered  at  different 
times;  having  been  purchased  or  homesteaded  from  the 
government  or  secured  in  other  ways,  as  by  grants  to 
railways,  etc.  The  irrigation  ditches  are  begun  by  the 
government,  by  individuals  and  by  corporations,  who  in 
turn  subdivide  their  lands  by  selling  to  individual  own- 
ers. The  relations  among  promoters  of  irrigation  ditches, 
and  between  these  and  owners  of  the  land,  become  very 
complicated.  The  various  states  of  the  arid  west  have 
enacted  many  laws  to  deal  with  these  complicated  con- 
ditions. These  laws  have  generally  been  made  by  piece- 
meal and  are  sometimes  aptly  termed  "  patch  quilts." 
The  decisions  of  courts  in  dealing  with  litigations  in 
individual  cases  have  been  numerous  and  often  conflict- 
ing. Thus,  the  network  of  legal  relations  concerning 
many  of  the  irrigation  enterprises  in  the  West  are  ex- 


242  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

ceedingly  intricate  and  in  many  cases  most  embarrass- 
ing, often  stopping  the  utilization  of  valuable  water 
supplies  because  of  the  unsettled  legal  problems  con- 
nected therewith.  The  general  government  is  not  only 
studying  these  problems,  but  has  entered  upon  a  vigor- 
ous policy  of  overcoming  the  difficulties  of  co-operation 
in  making  the  best  possible  use  of  the  available  supplies 


Figure  141,     Flowing  artesian  well  in  Nebraska.     With  nine  wells,  with  6-inch  pipes, 
112  acres  are  irrigated  for  very  slight  cost.    ',U.   S.  Geol.   Survey— Irrigation  Paper  29.) 

of  water.  States  which  have  not  as  yet  enacted  laws 
relating  to  irrigation  have  a  great  advantage  in  that 
they  may  start  with  general  laws  in  which  are  recog- 
nized the  general  principles  as  emphasized  by  the  best 
business  and  legal  experience  in  the  drouthier  states 
which  earlier  began  the  use  of  irrigation  waters. 

Irrigation  laws  should  recognize,  in  some  comprehen 
sive  way,  and  in  sufficient  detail  to  meet  the  varied  con- 


IRRIGATION  243 

ditions,  the  priority  of  the  right  to  use  water  as  acquired 
by  those  first  entering  upon  such  use.  That  the  state 
should,  in  some  instances,  reserve  the  ownership  of  the 
water  and  the  right  to  regulate  its  use,  or  even  after  a 
certain  date  demand  a  rental  price,  is  advocated  by 
some  people.  These  laws  should  contain  regulations 
under  which  public  officers  and  officers  of  co-operative 
associations  and  private  irrigation  companies  must  work 
in  distributing  the  water  to  the  various  citizens  and 
individual  users. 

Proper  provisions  should  be  made  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  competent  officials  under  some  system  of  civil 
service.  Suitable  means  for  locating,  altering  and  even 
discontinuing  irrigation  ditches  and  aqueducts  should 
be  provided.  Comprehensive  laws  should  deal  with 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public  irrigation 
canals  and  the  distribution  of  the  water  to  the  adjacent 
land.  However  comprehensively  a  state  may  devise  its 
general  law,  special  and  minor  laws  will  be  necessary. 
Penalties  for  injury  to  canals  or  gates  and  for  the  un- 
authorized use  of  water  are  necessary.  In  all  states 
where  irrigation  waters  are  likely  to  be  used,  laws  under 
which  water  rights  can  be  secured  should  be  passed,  and 
the  county  or  state  engineer  should  be  required  to  make 
surveys  with  proper  records  of  all  claims  at  the  time 
the  rights  are  entered  upon  for  water  available  for  irri- 
gation, and  these  records  should  be  evidence  of  priority 
of  rights.  These  records  should  include  a  record  of  the 
size  of  ditch  used  in  leading  the  water  away  from  any 
stream  or  lake. 

Water  rights  often  conflict  with  the  rights  of  those 
interested  in  transportation  by  water.  Especially  is  this 
true  with  owners  of  water  powers  and  with  logging  com- 
panies who  desire  to  use  the  flood  water  from  rivers, 
lakes  and  reservoirs  to  aid  them  in  floating  their  logs 
to  the  mills  and  near  to  their  markets, 


tioSTnirei-StS^KSL^en\\ntlc"uK        ^^"^'  ''''  ^^^^  ''  Experiment  Sla- 


244 


IRRIGATION  245 

Most  efficient  arrangements  are  being  worked  out  to 
meet  all  the  conditions  of  law,  of  ownership  of  water 
rights  and  lands,  of  irregular  supply  of  water,  and  of 
seasonal  needs  of  crops  under  large  irrigation  canals. 
By  combining  storage  reservoirs  with  the  regular  sum- 
mer water  flow,  by  arrangements  for  exchange  of  rights 
to  water  at  given  times,  and  by  other  devices,  associa- 
tions of  water  users,  through  their  officers,  can  utilize 
water  to  the  best  possible  advantage.  The  building  of 
reservoirs  in  which  to  store  up  flood  water  has  only 
begun  to  utilize  the  vast  resources  of  this  class  of  waters. 

Surveying  and  mechanical  appliances  used  in  irrigation 
construction  are  mainly  the  same  as  those  used  in  mak- 
ing drainage  systems,  as  illustrated  on  previous  pages. 

Irrigation  canals  must  have  sufficient  fall  so  that  they 
will  carry  the  required  amount  of  water,  but  should  not 
have  so  much  fall  that  the  water,  in  rushing  through 
them,  will  wash  or  destroy  their  banks.  The  aim  is  to 
give  a  velocity  that  will  prevent  the  deposit  of  silt  in  the 
main  canal  and  not  cause  serious  erosion.  Three  feet 
per  second  is  the  usual  maximum  velocity.  The  grades 
of  western  canals  and  ditches  vary  from  6  inches 
to  50  feet  per  mile.  The  more  nearly  level  the  grade, 
the  larger  must  be  the  cross-section  of  the  ditch.  The 
engineer  must  make  the  calculation  in  each  individual 
case  and  decide  upon  the  plan  which  will  accomplish  the 
desired  results  in  the  best  manner  and  at  a  minimum 
expense.  In  case  of  aqueducts  of  wood,  stone  or  metal, 
where  the  danger  of  injury  from  rapidly  flowing  water  is 
slight,  much  is  gained  by  having  the  grade  steep  so  as  to 
have  a  larger  amount  of  water  flow  rapidly  through  a  com- 
paratively small,  and  therefore  less  expensive,  aqueduct. 

Wood  and  iron  aqueducts. — In  many  places  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  water  across  low  areas.  In  some  cases, 
aqueducts  can  be  made  by  building  a  grade  of  earth  or  of 
masonry,  as  in  Figure  136.     In  other  cases  the  depth  is 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


SO  great  that  aqueducts  of  wood  or  iron  are  necessary. 
Most  of  the  irrigation,  however,  can  be  accomplished  by 
means  of  earthen  canals,  though,  in  many  cases,  more 
expensive  structures  have  been  made  to  produce  hand- 
some profits 


IRRIGATION  247 

Machinery  for  elevating  water. — Much  is  being  done 
to  devise  methods  of  elevating  water  by  machinery. 
Steam  and  gasoline  engines  and  windmills  perform 
the  great  bulk  of  this  work.  In  the  rice-growing  regions 
of  Texas  and  in  arid  regions,  large  engines  are  used  to 
pump  the  water  from  streams  or  reservoirs,  or  from 
wells,  thus,  in  some  cases,  directly  supplying  vast  tracts 
of  land  when  the  crops  especially  need  the  water.  In 
other  cases  the  water  is  pumped  into  reservoirs  to  be 
available  when  needed  by  the  crops.  Windmills  and 
small  engines  are  often  used  on  farms  to  utilize  a  small 
amount  of  water  from  wells  or  other  sources  to  irrigate 
the  farmstead  and  perchance  a  small  area  of  fields. 
Especially  is  this  advantageous  in  dry  regions  where 
most  of  the  land  is  used  for  pasturage,  or  is  subject  to 
years  of  serious  drouth.  Here  the  limited  acreage  of 
irrigated  land  greatly  aids  in  tiding  over  the  dry  years, 
as  well  as  adds  to  the  products  in  the  years  of  more 
ample  rainfall.  The  storage  of  pumped  water  and  its 
distribution  through  open  ditches  is  carried  out  much 
as  in  case  of  water  secured  by  gravitation. 

In  Figure  143  is  shown  a  farm  with  four  large  fields, 
A,  B,  C  and  D;  three  small  fields,  E,  F  and  G;  and  two 
very  rich  fields,  H  and  I,  from  a  reclaimed  swamp,  the 
surface  of  which  is  practically  on  a  level  with  the  water 
in  the  adjoining  lake.  All  fields  are  fenced.  The  area 
surrounded  by  the  line,  K,  incloses  all  the  land  which 
drains  into  this  low  area.  The  stream,  P,  P,  receiving 
the  water  also  from  the  stream,  S,  S,  was  not  well  de- 
fined from  T  to  T.  If  straightened  and  deepened  be- 
tween these  points,  and  if  the  earth  excavated  be  used  for 
an  embankment,  U  to  U,  the  water  can  be  carried 
directly  to  the  lake  without  longer  flooding  the  flat  area. 
Since  the  flat  area  receives  only  the  water  from  its  own 
surface,  and  from  small  parts  of  fields,  B,  D  and  G,  and 
since  the  subsoil  is  too  dense  for  seepage  water  to  come 


248 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


in  from  the  adjacent  streams  and  lake,  it  can  be  drained 
by  draining  it  into  a  pit  and  pumping  out  the  water,  as 
shown  in  Figure  144.  The  drainage  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  a  system  of  tile  drains  M  and  N,  or  N  (Figure 
143)  can  be  an  open  drain,  all  leading  to  the  pit,  O, 
from  which  the  engine  at  W  can  raise  the  water  a  few 
feet  and  discharge  it  into  the  lake  (as  shown  at  W, 
Figure  143),  across  the  road  embankment,  which  keeps 
the  water  out  of  the  low  area,  or  send  it  through  a  pipe 
(as  shown  at  L,  Figure  144),  to  the  crown  of  the  low 


Figure  144.  E,  pumping  engine;  T,  pit  into  which  drains  discharge,  and  from  which 
irrigation  water  is  pumped;  B,  bridge  across  stream;  S,  roadway;  N,  open  ditch  along 
roadway;  X,  embankment  confining  the  stream;  L,  line  of  pipe,  through  which  irriga- 
tion water  is  carried  to  fields. 

hill  at  K,  K,  K,  where  it  can  be  spread  out  through  open 
ditches  and  used  for  irrigating  fields,  F,  E.  C  and  G. 
When  the  drainage  ditches  from  fields  H  and  I  do  not 
supply  water  for  irrigation,  water  can  be  pumped  from 
the  lake  or  from  the  stream,  P,  P. 

Farm  irrigation  schemes. — The  layout  of  a  farm  which 
is  to  be  irrigated  is  often  a  more  complicated  engineer- 
ing proposition  than  the  organization  of  a  farm  in  a 
climate  where  the  natural  rainfall  is  depended  upon. 
The  main  field  supply  ditches  often  are  the  best  field 
boundaries.  A  system  of  ditches,  furrows,  check  sys- 
tem   embankments    and    ditch  openings    must    be    de- 


IRRIGATION 


249 


vised  for  each  field  and  each  orchard.  Often  a  system 
must  be  provided  to  remove  seepage  water  from  lower 
lands,  and,  where  seepage  waters  evaporate,  even  to  pre- 
vent or  cure  alkali.  In  planning  the  irrigation  scheme 
a  plan  of  crop  rotation  should  be  also  devised  which  will 
arrange  for  the  most  profitable  use  of  the  land  and  water. 


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Figure  145.    Drawing  of  a  model  of  irrigation  plan  displayed  in  plaster  at  the  St. 
Louis  World's  Fair. 


That  these  should  be  devised  at  the  same  time  is  mani- 
fest, since  the  system  of  applying  the  water  and  the 
times  of  applying  it  must  be  adapted  alike  to  all  crops 
in  the  rotation  scheme.  The  organization  of  farms,  and 
especially  the  planning  of  irrigated  farms,  is  destined  to 
become  a  technical  profession  needing  men  skilled  to 
assist  the  farmer  in  working  out  his  own  knowledge  and 
ideas  into  an  organized  plan  which  will  enable  him  to 
make  profits.     Like  rural  architecture,  the  planning  of 


250 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


family  farms  deals  with  small  units,  hence  a  professional 
class  of  rural  engineers  skilled  in  this  work  has  not  yet 
been  established.  As  yet  there  is  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  engineers  prepared  to  earn  the  fees  which 
wealthy  men  are  willing  to  pay  for  plans  for  the  organ- 
ization of  their  large  estates.  The  basic  data  are  being 
wrought  out  which  will  eventually  so  serve  the  man 
trained  in  using  water  and  in  organizing  irrigated 
farms  that  he  will  be  of  great  assistance  to 
the  general  irrigation  farmer.     The  support  of  such  men 

at  public  expense  is 
coming  to  be  recognized 
as  a  very  proper  way  of 
providing  a  certain 
kind  of  teaching  called 
demonstration  farming. 
The  farmer,  the  expert 
trained   in   using  irriga- 

Figure    146.     Trial    survey    line    and    adopted   tlOU  Watcr,   and  the   priu- 
course  for  main  canal  from  D,  past  M,  to  A.  .        -        -      ,  , .  ,  , 

cipal  of  the  consolidated 
rural  school,  co-operating,  can  often  work  out  a  plan  for  a 
new  farm,  or  can  plan  for  the  reorganization  of  an  old 
farm.  The  students  of  the  consolidated  rural  and 
village  school  can  have  the  benefit  of  the  various  steps 
in  devising  the  plans,  in  developing  the  farm  under  the 
new  plan,  and  in  studying  the  figures  and  facts  re- 
sulting from  putting  the  plans  to  the  test  in  the  pro- 
duction of  crops  and  in  the  yielding  of  profits  to  the 
owner. 

In  Figure  145  some  features  of  irrigation  are  illustrated 
by  means  of  a  drawing  showing  a  model  plan  in  plaster 
of  paris  exhibited  at  the  World's  Fair  at  St.  Louis  by  the 
American  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Ex- 
periment Stations.  The  water  is  represented  as  con- 
veyed through  a  main  canal  to  a  reservoir  and  from  there 
conveyed  through  a  continuation  of  the  main  canal,  main 


IRRIGATION 


:5i 


IS  raised  into  the  main  canal  by  means  of  a  dam  in  the 
stream  supplying  it.  The  main  canal  is  shown  as  pass- 
ing through  a  tunnel  under  a  rocky  ridge,  through  a  flume 
across  a  ravine,  and  into  a  reservoir  where  a  small  flow 
of  water  is  accumulated  for  use  when  needed  by  the 
crops. 

The  map  shows  the  manner  of  carrying  water  to  the 
respective  fields  and  of  distributing  it  by  flooding  on 
sloping  land,  as  on  alfalfa  in  Field  E ;    by  flooding  be- 


Figure  147.     Ditch  drop  to  carry  the  water  of  a  ditch  to  a  lower  level. 

tween  dikes  on  land  not  quite  level,  as  for  alfalfa  on  Field 
A ;  by  large  furrows,  as  in  the  orchard  in  Field  O ;  by 
small  furrows,  as  for  vegetables  in  Field  V;  by  flooding 
in  a  check  system,  as  the  orchard  in  Field  D.  An  alkali 
swamp  is  also  shown,  and  beside  it  a  swamp  with  no 
alkali,  drained  by  open  ditches.  In  many  cases  alkali 
swamps  located  like  the  upper  one  are  benefited  by 
underdrainage.  Since  irrigation  structures  are  usually 
permanent  there  is  especial  reason  for  the  use  of  great 
intelligence  in  making  plans  which  will  best  serve  the 


252 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


purpose ;  and  for  great  care  in  building  the  ditches,  dams 
and  gates. 

Conveying  water  from  source  to  farms. — Choosing 
the  point  at  which  the  main  canal  will  receive  the 
water  from  the  stream,  lake,  reservoir  or  pump; 
deciding  upon  the  course  of  the  canal,  and  plan- 
ning the  head  gate  and  the  construction  of  the  canal, 
with  any  necessary  flumes,  tunnels  and  drops,  often 
form    a    complex    problem.     In    large    and    complicated 

projects  only 
trained  engineers 
experienced  in 
this  class  of 
work  can  assem- 
ble the  neces- 
sary facts  upon 
which  to  base 
judgments  and 
can  devise  plans 
which  will  serve 
in  carrying  the 
water  effectively 
and  econom- 
ically. Experts 
in  soils  and  farm 
management  are  needed  to  form  difficult  judgments  as 
to  the  value  of  lands  which  it  is  proposed  to  supply  with 
water  at  large  expense,  that  enterprises  be  not  under- 
taken which  will  not  prove  to  be  profitable. 

In  Figure  146  are  shown  two  lines  of  survey  made  in  the 
selection  of  a  ditch  line  from  the  highest  part  of  the 
Farm  A  to  some  point  on  the  stream  D,  E.  D  is  found 
to  be  the  practical  place  for  the  head  gate.  The  trial 
line,  D,  F,  A,  following  a  gentle  grade  about  the  bases 
of  the  hills,  makes  too  long  a  line  and  some  rocky  ex- 
cavating is  necessary.     By  placing  a  drop  at  M  to  drop 


Figure  148.  Division  box,  showing  how  part  or  all  the 
water  can  be  turned  from  a  ditch  into  laterals.  (After  U.  S. 
Farmers'    Bulletin,    263.) 


IRRIGATION 


253 


the  water  to  a  lower  level,  the  main  ditch  can  go  through 
land  in  which  a  canal  can  be  cheaply  constructed. 

Often  it  is  necessary  to  drop  the  level  of  water  in  a 
ditch  to  avoid  long  ditches  around  hills  or  to  avoid  too 
much  fall  and  thus  prevent  erosion  by  too  rapid  flow  of 
water.  The  general  plan  of  structure  with  boards, 
shown  in  Figure  147,  can  be  followed,  or  a  permanent 
waterfall  may  be  constructed  of  stones  or  cement. 

Water  gates. — In  all  complicated  systems  of  irrigating 
canals,  gates  and  weirs  must  be  employed  to  be  used  in 
restraining  the  water  and  in  directing  it  into  the  desired 
channels  and  fields,  also  to  measure  out  the  proper 
amount  of 
water  to  each 
party  entitled 
to  water.  In 
Figure  148  is 
shown  a  sys- 
tem of  three 
gates.  The 
gate  in  the 
main  ditch  is 
raised  so  as  to 
hold  the  water 
above  it  at  an 
even  height. 
The  side  gates 
are  raised  to 
discharge  a 
given  amount 
of  water,  as 
determined  by  a  measuring  weir  below  each  gate.  In 
Figure  149  is  shown  a  simple  head  gate  used  by  a  farmer 
in  regulating  the  water  which  he  desires  to  flow  upon  a 
given  field.  In  Figure  150  is  shown  a  side  or  head  gate 
used  by  a  company  to  regulate  the  water  which  its  ditch 


Figure  149.     Simple  head  gate. 


254 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


agent  allows  to  flow  into  the  supply  ditch  of  a  farmer. 
By  means  of  the  wheel  and  screw-rod  the  gate  can  be 
raised  to  allow  a  given  amount  of  water  to  pass  through. 
The  arm-nut  with  chain  attached  can  be  so  placed  on 
the  screw-rod  as  to  allow  only  the  allotted  amount  of 

water  to  pass  under 
the  gate,  and  with  pad- 
lock it  can  be  locked  so 
that  no  one  can  open 
the  gate  wider.  In 
Figure  148  is  shown  a 
form  of  division  box  by 
means  of  which  part 
or  all  of  the  water  can 
be  taken  from  a  main 
ditch  and  distributed  to 
the  ditches  either  side. 
The  gates,  usually 
made  of  2x  4-incli 
uprights  and  2-inch 
planks,  can  be  so  ad- 
justed as  to  permit  the 
desired  amount  of 
water  to  flow  through 
them.  In  case  of  ditches 
which  carry  water  to  a 
number  of  users,  each 

Figure  150.  Head  gate  used  for  regulating  and  meas-  of  wllOm  is  entitled  tO 
uring  water  from  company  ditch  to  farmer's  ditch. 

a  share,  the  openings 
in  the  gates  are  adjusted  to  measure  the  water  supplied 
through  the  four  laterals,  that  each  may  receive  his  pro- 
portionate share. 

The  measuring  weir,  usually  placed  in  the  ditch  just 
below  the  head  gate,  is  a  very  simple  device,  by  means 
of  which  the  amount  of  water  running  through  the  ditch 
can  be  measured.     Thus  the  corporate  company  or  the 


IRRIGATION  255 

co-operative  association  of  farmers  can  determine  the 
amount  of  water  supplied  to  each  farmer;  and  the  farmer 
can  determine  the  amount  of  water  allowed  to  run  upon 
a  given  field.  Weirs  are  so  constructed  in  relation  to 
the  opening  in  the  water  gate  in  the  ditch  above  that  the 
water  in  the  weir  stands  at  a  uniform  height,  that  it  may 
flow  out  of  the  weir  with  a  stream  of  uniform  size  and 
velocity.  The  standard  or  unit  used  in  the  measurement 
of  flowing  water  is  usually  the  cubic  foot  per  second  of 
time.  Thus  a  head  gate  so  adjusted  that  it  allows  a 
cubic  foot  of  water  to  pass  through  the  weir  each  second 


Figure  151.     Tlie  measuring  weir. 

is  said  to  be  adjusted  to  one  cubic  foot  or  one  foot  of 
flow  per  second.  The  head  gate  can  be  adjusted  to  20 
cubic  feet  per  second  or  to  any  other  amount.  And  after 
adjusting  the  head  gate  to  a  given  flow  the  superinten- 
dent of  the  canal  can  leave  it  one  or  more  days  with  the 
assurance  that  the  flow  will  be  practically  uniform  for 
the  full  time  required  to  give  the  farmer  his  allotted 
share  of  water. 

The   measuring  weir   is   simply  a  notch   of  a  certain 
shape  and  size  in  a  dam  placed  across  a  stream,  so  ar- 


256 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


£/ei/atioo 


Secnon 
X'Y 


ranged  that  all  the  water  flowing  in  the  stream  passes 
through  the  notch.  The  Cippoletti  weir  is  a  notch  of  a 
given  form,  and  formulae  have  been  constructed  to  apply 
to  the  depth  of  the  water  flowing  out,  by  this  means 
reducing  the  record  of  outflow  to  cubic  feet  per  second. 
In  Figure  151  is  shown  the  weir  in  perspective;  and  in 
Figure  152  the  form  of  notch,  with  measurements,  is 
shown  in  detail. 

Since  the  level  of  the  water  at  the  point  where  it  flows 
out  of  the  notch  is  somewhat  depressed  the  measure- 
ment of  the  height 
of  the  water  above 
the  knife  edge,  or 
bottom  of  the  notch, 
is  usually  taken 
some  feet  from  the 
notch.  This  may  be 
arranged  for  by  hav- 
ing a  peg  driven  in 
the  ditch,  the  top  of 
which  is  level  with 
the  knife  edge,  that 
by  means  of  a  pocket  ruler  the  depth  of  the  water  may 
be  measured;  or  a  graduated  measure  may  be  attached 
to  the  side  of  the  weir  box,  as  on  the  left  side  of  the  box 
in  Figure  151. 

The  construction  of  the  weir  box  8  feet  long,  4  feet 
wide  and  3  feet  deep,  of  i  and  2-inch  lumber,  as  shown 
in  Figure  151,  will  cost  $5  to  $9.  The  floor  is  extended 
beyond  the  lower  end  to  serve  as  a  platform  to  prevent 
the  falling  water  from  washing  out  the  ditch,  and  where 
needed  the  sides  of  the  ditch  may  be  further  protected 
by  riprapping  with  rock.  The  weir  is  more  accurate  if 
the  notch  is  chamfered  with  the  sharp  edge  up  stream. 
The  weir  box  should  be  large  and  deep  in  proportion  to 
the  opening  of  the  notch,  that  the  stream  may  flow  out 


Vte>¥   from   Above 
Figure  152.     Details  of  weir  board. 


IRRIGATION 


257 


with  perfect  freedom  and  uniformity.  The  miner^s  inch 
is  also  used,  especially  in  regions  where  miners  have 
become  accustomed  to  distributing  water  to  be  used  in 
mining.     The  miner's  inch  is  the  amount  of  water  which 

/h 


will  flow  through  a  square  inch  of  opening  in  a  second 
with  the  water  held  at  a  given  height  above  the  open- 
ing.    The  exact  conditions  for  measurement  are  defined 


258  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

by  law  in  most  of  the  western  states,  the  conditions  dif- 
fering in  different  states. 

In  Figure  153  is  shown  the  construction  of  a  box  for 
measuring  the  flow  of  water  in  miners'  inches.  Formulae 
are  also  used  for  the  calculation  of  the  amount  of  water 
flowing  from  weirs  of  a  given  construction  with  the  water 
above  standing  at  a  given  height.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  State  experiment  sta- 
tions of  Colorado,  Wyoming  and  other  states,  have  pub- 
lished bulletins  treating  of  the  measurement  of  irriga- 
tion water,  which  can  be 
secured  by  those  needing 
detailed   information. 

As  a  unit  of  measur- 
ing water  for  irrigation 
purposes,      the      miner's 

Figure  154.    Flank  scraper  for  opening  irrigation    inch    is    UOt    SO    S^enerallv 

used  as  the  cubic  foot 
per  second,  or  the  acre  foot.  In  recording  measure- 
ments of  large  quantities  of  water,  the  miner's  inch, 
although  fairly  accurate,  is  too  small  a  unit. 

"  The  miner's  inch  is  a  unit  of  rate  of  the  discharge  of 
water  expressed  in  terms  of  a  standard  orifice  or  outlet 
opening,  usually  i  inch  square,  and  a  standard  head."*  In 
different  states  this  head  varies  from  3  to  9  inches,  but 
the  head  most  commonly  used  is  6  inches.  "  Under  a 
head  of  6  inches  and  coefficient  of  0.62,  the  discharge 
through  a  i-inch  orifice  would  be  0.0244  cubic  feet  per 
second  or  0.183  United  States  gallons  (of  231  cubic 
inches).  Usually  the  orifice  is  of  fixed  depth  and  ad- 
justable length."  (See  Figure  153.)  The  standard  head 
of  6  inches  (in  sketch  the  head  is  marked  by  block  B,  6 
inches  long  and  tacked  on  side  of  box),  or  whatever  head 
it  may  be,  is  maintained  by  the  gate  C.  This  gate  is 
placed  securely  in  the  ditch  bank  and  raised  or  lowered 

*  Trautwine's  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


IRRIGATION 


259 


according  as  more  or  less  water  is  being  drawn  above 
the  orifice.  The  amount  of  water  let  through  under  the 
constant  head  is  regulated  by  the  slide  A  shown  in 
Figure  153. 

An  acre  inch  means  sufficient  water  to  cover  an  acre 
of  land  an  inch  deep,  and  is  226,875  pounds,  28,359 
gallons,  or  886  barrels  of  32  gallons  each. 

Constructing  farm  supply  ditches  and  field  ditches. — 
The  location  and  construction  of  ditches  to  carry  the 
water  to  the  fields  can  be  done  with  the  reversible  road 
machine,  Fresno  scraper,  especially  devised  scrapers,  the 


Figure  155.     Showing  plank  scraper  in  use,  placing  tlie  embankment  all  on  one  side 
of  the  ditch. 


road  plow,  the  common  stubble  plow,  the  spade  and 
other  suitable  implements.  In  many  cases  the  earth 
from  the  ditch  can  be  made  to  serve  as  an  embankment 
in  checking  oflF  nearly  level  fields  or  in  terracing  the  hill- 
sides with  slight  fall  so  as  to  hold  water  in  flooding. 

Locating  field  laterals. — In  making  shallow  laterals 
through  the  farm,  and  often  temporary  ditches  through 
the  fields,  it  is  necessary  to  curve  about  small  eleva- 
tions so  as  to  have  only  very  slight  grade  to  the 
ditches. 


26o 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  156.  Supply  ditch  as  made  with  reversible 
road  machine  or  with  plow  and  scraper,  as  in 
Figures  117  and  155. 


The  biped  level  shown  in  Figure  158  is  used  in  map- 
ping out  field  laterals  around  slight  elevations.  Laterals 
nearly  level  make  it  possible  to  take  v^ater  out  through 
small  openings  in  their  banks  into  the  furrows  between 

rows  of  cultivated 
plants  or  trees  or  upon  , 
grain  or  meadow  fields. 
In  constructing  this 
homemade  level  it  may 
be  adjusted  to  read 
level  by  means  of  a 
screw  arrangement,  or 
even  a  wedge,  to  raise  or  lower  one  end  of  the  spirit  level 
on  the  rail,  and  two  stakes  i6j4  feet  apart,  driven  at  first 
as  nearly  level  as  the  eye  can  judge.  By  repeated  trial, 
by  reversing  ends  and  driving  down  the  higher  stake, 
the  tops  of  the  stakes 
can  be  made  the  same 
height  and  the  instru- 
ment adjusted  to  read 
level.     The     extension 

leS"  at  one   end  can  then  Figure    157.     Ditch    for   farm    laterals   as   plowed 

'^  out   by  means  of   ordinary  stubble  plow   or   double 

he      Inwered      arrnrdinP"  moldboard    or    finished    by    means    of    a    V-shaped 

uc      luwcicu      cH„L.uiuiiig  scraper,  as  in  Figure  163. 

to  the  grade  to  be  given 

the  ditch,  as  follows:  One-eighth  inch  per  rod  giving  a 
grade  of  40  inches  per  mile;  %,  80  inches;  %,  120 
inches,  or  10  feet,  etc.,  as  regulated  by  the  figures  on  the 
adjustable  leg,  shown  in  Figure  160. 

To  mark  out  a  grade  for  a  ditch  leading  from  the  sup- 
ply ditch,  place  the  shorter,  stationary,  leg  at  the  point  of 
taking  in  the  water;  dig  a  place  for  the  longer,  adjustable, 
leg  to  a  depth  at  which  the  bulb  will  read  level.  Moving 
the  leveling  device  forward  place  the  short  leg  in  the  last 
hole  and  dig  another  hole  sufficiently  deep  so  that  when 
the  long  leg  is  placed  in  it  the  bulb  again  reads  level.  By 
following  a  slope  requiring  holes  of  nearly  equal  depth 


IRRIGATION  261 

the  ditch  will  be  made  the  desired  slant  with  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  excavation  and  nearly  uniform  in  depth. 
By  means  of  this  biped  level  the  ditch  can  be  carried 
along  that  course  around  a  hill  which  will  provide  the 
desired  gentle  slope,  with  the  ditch  made  at  a  uniform 
depth  at  all  points,  thus  making  it  possible  to  open 
the  ditch  out  with  plows  or  other  cheaply  operated 
machines. 

Since  it  is  necessary  that  field  la*terals  shall  be  built 
with  embankments  so  that  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
them  shall  rise  high  enough  to  flow  out  on  the  land 
when  the  banks  are  cut,  they  must  be  shallow.  On  a 
hillside  the  earth  should  all  be  thrown  out  on  the  lower 
side,    but   on    level   or   nearly   level    land   it   should   be 


■lQ}irj, 


Figure  158.     Biped  leveling  device.     See  adjustable  leg  in  Fig8.  159  and  160. 

thrown  out  on  both  sides.  A  double  moldboard,  or 
listing  plow,  as  shown  in  Figure  162,  will  often  make 
a  suitable  ditch  with  once  or  twice  passing.  More  often 
some  such  device  as  that  shown  in  Figure  163  is  neces- 
sary to  follow  the  double  moldboard  plow  throwing 
the  earth  out  on  either  side,  or  the  single  moldboard 
plow  used  to  throw  two  or  more  furrows  either  side, 
forming  a  dead  furrow.  Where  more  depth  and  a  larger 
ditch  is  required,  the  "A"  can  be  used  to  further  open  out 
the  first  dead  furrow  and  a  second  dead  furrow  can  be 
thrown  out  along  the  same  line,  again  shoving  the 
loosened  earth  up  on  the  banks  by  using  the  "A." 

The  leveling  device  shown  in  Figure  161  can  be  used  in 
grading  the  bottoms  of  ditches.  Often  water  flowing 
in  the  ditch  can  be  used  to  secure  the  desired  slant. 


262 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


T'igure  159.    Manner  of  using  biped  leveling  device 


Taking    the    water    from    ditches    upon    the    land. — 

There  are  various  devices  for  allowing  the  water  to  leave 
the  field  side  ditch  and  run  into  the  field,  and  to  flood 
the  land  from  the  ditch  located  within  the  field.  The 
normal  level  of  running  water  in  the  ditch  is  raised  by 
means  of  dams  made  in  a  variety  of  ways.     In   small 

ditches  some  spadefuls 
of  earth  serve  to  stop 
the  flow  of  water,  or  a 
part  of  it,  and  a  small 
notch  cut  through  the 
embankment  allows  a 
stream  of  the  desired 
size  to  flow  into  the  field 
furrow  or  to  be  spread 
out  to  flood  the  land.  A 
canvas  dam,  fashioned 
like  that  shown  in  Figure  164,  and  used  as  in  Figure 
165,  often  serves  the  purpose.  A  few  shovelfuls  of  earth 
hold  the  canvas  in  place.  A  dam  made  like 
that  shown  in  Figure  166  is  often  useful. 
Several  dozen  pipes  made  of  half-inch 
boards,  with  openings  2x2  inches  and  3 
feet  long,  with  gate ;  or  for  small  amounts 
of  water,  four  half  laths  nailed  together, 
and  inserted  through  the  bank,  with  upper 
end  2  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
water  and  the  outer  end  leading  into  the 
row  ditch  or  into  the  field,  will  often  en- 
able a  man  to  work  more  rapidly,  and  to 
distribute  the  water  more  equitably  into 
furrows  or  upon  the  field  of  grain  or  grass.  The 
character  of  the  land  has  much  to  do  with  its  needs 
for  irrigation,  and  also  with  the  method  which  must  be 
employed  in  the  use  of  the  water.  Thus,  upon  sandy  or 
gravelly   lands   more   water   is   required   than   on   lands 


& 


Figure  160.  Detail 
of  adjustable  leg  of 
biped  leveling  device. 


IRRIGATION 


263 


i^itsH'^;«J*>«i>dKJfett£t«ukMM«iti 


which  will  better  retain  water  received  from  rains  or 
ditches.  They  become  droughty  in  a  moister  climate 
earlier  in  the  spring  and  sooner  after  rain.  They  must  be 
irrigated  more  frequently  than  the  lands  better  prepared 
to  conserve  moisture.  It  is  difficult  on  such  lands  to  dis- 
tribute the  water  because  of  the  great  amount  of  waste 
by  rapid  percolation  down 
below  the  area  reached  by 
the  roots  of  plants  and  by 
seepage,  and  in  many  cases 
it  is  not  practicable  to  use 
the  water  on  this  land, 
when  the  same  water  might 

be    of    S'reater    use    on    lands  Figure    lei.     Grade    level    of    light    planed 

"  boards,  made  accurately  as  shown.     To  estab- 

better  adapted  to  irrig-atlOn.  ijf^   ^   2   per   cent   grade,   for   example,    bring 

i                               o  the  instrument  to  a  level  along  the  line  of  the 

r^analc   mariA  *->■?  fViic   l^inrl   mf  drain  by  use  of  spirit  level,   F;  mark  center, 

\^d.Iiaib   nidUe  UI  tniS   KinU  01  ^    ^.   ^hen    raise    the   updrain   end   through    a 

canrlir     onrl      o-ro^r^lKr     mai-fx  distance    one-fiftieth    of    the    length    of    the 

Sanay     ana     graveiiy     mate-  base   llne,    a    C      The   plumb   llne   win   cross 

•    «                i'T_ij_itT  t''6  board  D  E,   in  some  line  away  from  the 

rial    are    liable    to    leak    large  center,  a  b.     Mark  tMs  crossing,  as  X  y.     The 

-                                 i      1    •  same  grade  can  then  be  found  at  any  point  in 

amounts    01    water,    and    this  the  drain  by  leveling  till  plumb  line  crosses  at 

'  a  b,  and  then  raising  the  updrain  end  till  the 

is  also  true  of  laterals  and   SaS  cS%ZTe  SiiSe!/'   ^  ""*'°^" 
farm     ditches.       In     some 

cases  it  is  practicable  to  place  clay  in  the  bottom  and 
along  the  sides  of  ditches  made  of  open  soil,  or  to  allow 
them  to  become  coated  with  sediment  from  muddy  waters 
that  the  denser  walls  thus  formed  may 
enable  the  canal  better  to  retain  its 
water.  With  some  such  materials, 
puddling,  i.  e.,  working  the  clay  layer 
in  the  ditch  when  wet,  will  make  it 
much  more  retentive.  But  the  greater 
difficulty  in  sandy  lands  lies  in  getting 
the  water  to  flow  over  the  field  and 
moisten  the  surface  rather  than  to  sink 
away  immediately  and  do  little  good. 
Heavy  clay  soils,  on  the  other  hand, 


Figure 


Listing 


plow,  useful  in  making 
shallow  ditches  on  level 
land,     as    it    throws    t'le 

Sr'^"''^  °"^  ""^  ^°*^   serve  nicely  to  carry  the  water  forward 


264 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


in  canals  and  field  ditches  without  serious  waste  till  it 
is  evenly  spread  over  the  soil  and  allowed  to  percolate 
slowly  downward.  On  these  soils  leaching  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  and  most  of  the  water  supplied  is  conserved 

to  be  taken  up  by  the 
roots  of  plants,  or  is  lost 
by  evaporation  from  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  These 
heavy  soils  require  intel- 
ligent management  to 
make  them  produce  well, 
whether  in  a  region  of 
heavy  rainfall  or  under 
irrigation.     They  are  liable 


Figure  163.     Ditching  "A."  used  for  flnlBh- 
iiig  small  lateral  ditches. 


PENING, 


to  become  baked  and  in 
poor  mechanical  condi- 
tion for  producing  good 
crops. 

Medium  textured  soils 
of  mixed  sand  and  clay 
are  best  for  irrigation, 
and  more  money  can  be 
profitably  invested  in 
irrigating  these  soils 
than  for  the  very  light 
or  the  very  heavy  soils. 
The  water  can  be  spread 
over  them  without  great 
loss ;  they  will  absorb 
and  retain  large  quan- 
tities of  water  and  will 
supply  it  gradually  to 
the  growing  crops;  they 
may  be  cultivated  and 
kept  in  good  mechanical  condition  without  large  expense; 
find  they  are  usually  productive. 


Figure  164.     Canvas  dam. 


266 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Alkaline  soils  under  irrigation  must  be  handled  with 
special  care.  In  many  drouthy  regions  the  alkaline 
soils  become  still  more  alkaline  when  irrigated.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  water  used  bringing,  in  solution, 
^;:s=====5v  large    portions    of 

Jl ^ JL .    the   alkaline   compounds 

^  —  ^  ^  *  which,  upon  evapora- 
tion, are  left  in  the  sur- 
face soil.  In  other  cases 
it  is  due  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  soluble  alkaline 
compounds  from  the 
subsoil  by  the  water, 
which  upon  rising  to  the  surface  and  there  evaporat- 
ing leaves  the  surface  soil  with  an  increased 
amount  of  these  alkaline  substances  that  are  in- 
jurious to  plants.  In  yet  other  cases  seepage  water 
from  irrigated  areas  at  higher  levels  absorb  large  quan- 
tities of  alkaline  compounds  and  seeping  forward  through 
porous  underlayers,  carry  them  to  the  surface  on  lower 
areas  where  the  alkaline  salts  are  deposited  upon  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  In  cases  of  this  kind  it  some- 
times happens  that  irrigation  water  applied  to  one  farm 


Figure  166.     Metal  dam  or  tappoon. 


Figures  167  and  168.    Small  boxes  to  conduct  water  from  farm  ditch  into  furrows. 

will  thus  flow  underneath  to  another  farm  and  injuriously 
affect  the  neighbor's  field.  In  many  localities  where 
alkaline  soils  are  irrigated,  the  conditions  must  be  con- 
stantly watched  and  special  care  taken  not  to  use  more 
water  than  is  necessary.     In  this  way  the  fields  which 


IRRIGATION 


267 


might  gradually  become  so  alkaline  as  to  be  worthless 
may  for  a  long  time  be  kept  suitable  for  the  growth  of 
crops.  By  using  large  quantities  of  water  with  natural 
or  artificial  underdrainage  the  excess  of  alkali  may  be 
slowly  washed  out  of  some  soils.  In  some  areas  the 
entire  engineering  plan  for  irrigation  needs  to  be  ar- 
ranged with  drainage  systems  so  as  best  to  avoid  the 
accumulative  injuries  of  alkali  deposited  by  irrigation  or 
seepage  waters. 

Crops  needing  irrigation — All  farm,  garden  and  horti- 
cultural crops  may  profitably  be  irrigated,  where  wat-er 


Figure   169.      Turning   water   from   field   side  ditch  into  furrows  among  garden  crops. 

is  inexpensive,  at  least  in  dry  seasons.  Under  rare  con- 
ditions, forest  crops  may  be  irrigated  profitably.  Where 
water  is  expensive  and  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  during 
most  years,  irrigation  can  be  afforded  only  for  such 
expensive  crops  as  small  fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  time  of  the  year  in  which  to  apply  water  to  the 
various  crops,  is  a  matter  of  detail  which  can  be  decided 
only  with  a  knowledge  of  the  local  conditions  of  any 
crops  and  of  the  methods  of  farm  management  of  any 
given  area.  It  is  often  necessary  to  apply  water  at  or 
before  planting  time   so  that  the   seeds   will  germinate 


26'^ 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


and  the  plants  get  their  roots  well  developed  to  enable 
them  to  secure  water  from  the  subsoil  as  they  mature. 
In  cold  regions  winter  grains  should  have  sufficient 
water  in  autumn  that  they  may  develop  strong  roots 
which  will  endure  the  severe  conditions  of  winter.  Irri- 
gation in  cold  latitudes  should  not  be  so  late  as  to 
encourage  late  maturity  of  trees,  or  in  case  of  winter 
crops  as  to  stimulate  too  late  growth,  causing  the  plants 
to  be  in  poor  condition  for  winter;  better  have  the  ground 

fairly  dry  when  freez- 
ing begins.  In  some 
soils  the  "heaving"  of 
clover  and  wheat 
plants  from  the  freez- 
ing of  the  soil  is  much 
worse  if  it  is  thor- 
oughly saturated  with 
water  than  if  com- 
paratively dry.  Grasses, 
clovers  or  other  peren- 

Pigure  170.     Flooding  from  field  laterals  without      nial     Or     biennial     CrOOS 
furrows.  " 

should  have  only  suf- 
ficient water  to  enable  them  to  go  into  the  winter  with 
strong,  well-matured  roots  and  crowns.  In  the  spring, 
most  cultivated  plants  need  an  ample  supply  of  water 
with  which  to  enable  them  to  start  out  a  vigorous 
growth.  Grass  crops  are  usually  benefited  by  rather 
large  supplies  of  water  frequently  applied.  Winter  and 
spring  cereal  grains  respond  to  goodly  supplies  of  water 
in  their  earlier  growth,  and  as  the  period  of  ripening 
advances,  they  do  quite  as  well  if  given  only  a  medium 
supply  of  water.  Such  luxuriant  growers  as  alfalfa  will 
give  an  abundant  harvest  every  few  weeks  if  at  the  time 
of  each  mowing  they  are  supplied  with  several  inches  of 
water — an  inch  meaning  sufficient  water  to  cover  the 
surface  an  inch  deep.     Indian  corn  thrives  best  with  a 


IRRIGATION 


269 


sH 


1 


ail  I 

IliiM 
III 


medium  amount  of  water  applied  throughout  its  grow- 
ing season.  Being  a  southern  plant  adapted  to  warm, 
open  soils,  it  does  best  if  not  watered  too  heavily  at  one 
time.  This  is  particularly  true  on  soils  which  are  dense 
and  cold.  The  experience  of  local  growers  and  the 
instruction  emanating  from  the  agricultural  colleges, 
state  experiment  stations  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  should  be  of  the  greatest  value  to 
those  who  are  studying  how  and  when  to  apply  water 
and  the  quantities  best  to  use  at  each  application.  Ex- 
tensive studies 
of  when  to  ir- 
rigate each 
crop,  how  to 
apply  the 
water,  how 
much,  to  apply 
and  the  manner 
of  after  cul- 
tivation are 
being  made  by 
the  United 
States  Depart- 
ment of  Agri- 
culture and  by 
various  state 
experiment  sta- 
tions, and  by  a 
letter  of  inquiry 

the   farmer  or  teacher   can   easily  find   how  to   secure 
literature  giving  these  facts. 

Very  often  the  farmer  cannot  entirely  control  the  time 
of  application  of  irrigation  water:  the  needs  of  other 
farmers,  the  priority  of  rights,  the  available  supply  of 
water  in  stream  or  reservoir,  and  his  own  convenience 
in  looking  after  the  application  of  the  water  in  connec- 


mm 


mM 


ill 

ii 


iiill 


Figure  171.     Flooding  from  ditches  running  down  the  slope. 


270 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


FIELD       DITCH 


FIELD    DITCK 


tion  with  carrying  on  other  work  on  the  farm,  all  make 
the  problem  one  which  requires  constant  thought  and 
must  be  solved  at  the  time  with  all  the  facts  in  mind. 
Where  it  is  known  there  will  be  a  scarcity  of  water  for 
irrigation  in  midsummer,  as  in  some  parts  of  Oregon  and 
Arizona,  the  practice  of  filling  the  subsoil  with  water 
in  winter  and  spring  and  making  this  serve  as  a  reserve 
supply  has  been  largely  followed  with  great  success. 

The  time  of  day  to  apply  water  is  relatively  of  greater 
moment  when  applying  small  amounts,  as  with  the  water- 
ing pot  or  sprinkling 
hose,  than  where  the 
farmer  places  several 
inches  of  water  on  a 
growing  crop.  Water 
applied  in  the  morning 
with  the  sprinkling  pot 
penetrates  only  an  inch 
or  two  into  the  soil 
and  the  hot,  dry  air  of 
the  sunshiny  day  will- 
evaporate  a  large  por- 
tion of  it.  The  same 
amount  of  water  ap- 
plied in  the  evening  has 

Figure  172.     Ditch  at  the  foot  of  an  irrigated  field  ,  .  ,    •    1 

which    catches    and    carries    off    the    seepage    water  a    lOnSfCr   timC    lU    WnlCll 
wliich  otherwise  would  seep  into  the  low  area  and  upon  '^  ^ 

evaporating  would  leave  so  much  of  salts  as  to  make  -j^q   penetrate    the    SOil    in 
it  too  alkaline  for  crops.  i^ 

response  to  the  force 
of  capillary  attraction,  and  a  less  amount  is  left  at  the 
surface  to  be  taken  up  by  the  atmosphere  the  following 
day.  But  where  several  inches  of  water  are  run  upon 
land  from  ditches,  less  attention  can  be  given  to  the  time 
of  day  of  its  application,  and,  indeed,  there  is  very  little 
difference  since  the  soil  is  kept  wet  at  the  surface  for  some 
time  while  water  is  slowly  percolating  downward,  under 
the  influence  of  capillary  attraction  aided  by  gravitation. 


IRRIGATION  271 

Irrigation  and  special  cultivation. — Adjacent  fields 
with  or  without  irrigation  require  different  cultivation. 
That  on  which  large  amounts  of  water  are  applied  should 
be  plowed  deeper,  and  subsoiling  is  sometimes  necessary 
in  heavy  soils,  receiving  much  water.  Irrigation  tends 
to  make  the  soil  denser,  less  porous,  colder  and  heavier 
to  handle  with  tillage  implements.  In  regions  so  drouthy 
that  irrigation  is  necessary,  lands  not  irrigated  are  quite 
as  well  managed  if  they  are  not  plowed  so  deeply,  and 
they  are  kept  mellow  with  much  less  cultivation  than  is 
sometimes  necessary  in  lands  heavily  watered.  Among 
corn  and  other  crops  which  may  be  cultivated  between 
the  rows,  the  surface  should  be  broken  up  with  the  cul- 
tivator as  soon  after  applying  the  water  as  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  dry  to  be  handled.  This  cultivation  pre- 
vents the  rise  of  the  water  to  the  surface,  and  conserves 
it  for  the  use  of  crops  and  provides  suitable  mechanical 
conditions  for  the  roots  of  the  crops.  Coarse  and  green 
manures,  also  artificial  fertilizers,  are  especially  profit- 
able where  the  land  can  be  kept  so  uniformly  moist  that 
it  is  adapted  to  the  best  use  of  the  available  fertility. 

Subirrigation. — Various  forms  of  subirrigation  have 
been  devised.  A  very  simple  form  is  one  in  which  the 
water  is  supplied  from  below,  as  in  greenhouse  benches. 
Supplying  water  is  also  accomplished  by  means  of 
tile  drains  laid  one  or  more  feet  below  the  surface  in  the 
fields.  Instead  of  these  drains  being  used  to  run  the 
water  out  of  the  soil,  they  serve  to  carry  the  water  into 
the  soil.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  not  causing 
the  surface  to  bake,  as  in  surface  irrigation,  where  dry, 
bright  weather  following  the  application  of  large  quan- 
tities of  water  to  a  surface  of  heavy  soils  causes  the  sur- 
face soil  to  become  baked  and  hard.  This  form  of  irriga- 
tion, however,  is  limited  to  gardens  where  valuable  crops 
are  grown,  and  where  water  is  plentiful,  or  to  green- 
houses where  the  water  is  under  full  control. 


CHAPTER  XI 
ROADS  AND  BRIDGES 

Prior  to  1850  all  progressive  countries  were  putting 
forth  great  eiforts  in  making  common  roads.  The  ex- 
pense being  very  large,  the  work  progressed  slowly. 
These  roads  were  needed  for  the  arts  of  peace  and  in 
times  of  war.  Military  rulers  often  found  it  necessary 
to  use  their  autocratic  powers  in  constructing  permanent 
roads  in  times  of  peace  that  they  might  have  a  mccins 
of  more  rapidly  moving  their  armies  and  munitions  dur- 
ing times  of  war.  The  older  countries,  having  been  long 
under  these  conditions,  had  succeeded  in  making  sub- 
stantial roads  along  many  of  the  principal  lines  of 
travel,  as  between  towns,  though  little  had  been  done 
for  the  greater  proportion  of  the  mileage  of  roads  among 
and  within  farms.  Prior  to  the  above  date  the  local 
communities  of  the  United  States,  in  some  cases  aided 
by  the  state  and  even  by  the  nation,  were  bravely  strug- 
gling to  inaugurate  a  system  of  good  roads.  The  coun- 
try was  new,  the  distances  great,  making  the  total  mile- 
age of  wagon  roads  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
capital  invested  in  farms,  or  even  in  proportion  to  the 
total  capital  of  the  entire  country.  It  looked  as  though 
centuries  would  be  required  to  make  a  network  of  good 
roads  throughout  this  vast  country. 

Modern  road  building. — The  people  looked  back  to  the 
times  when  the  Romans  built  great  military  roads  lead- 
ing from  Rome  toward  different  parts  of  the  world. 
They  observed  with  interest  the  natural  and  historical 
evidences  of  roadways  among  some  of  the  ancient  peo- 
ple of  South  America,  notably  the  Incas  of  Peru.  They 
studied  with  great  interest  contemporaneous  road  build- 

878 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  2/3 

ing  in  Europe.  They  projected  and  partially  completed 
a  great  national  highway  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
westward,  finishing  it  into  Indiana.  They  built  road- 
ways between  large  cities  and  planned  many  more.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  farmers  were  making  efforts  to  con- 
nect their  farms  with  nearby  towns  and  villages,  with  the 
great  turnpikes,  and  with  the  markets  on  seaboard,  on 
the  larger  lakes  and  on  rivers  and  canals.  In  many 
instances,  the  only  means  of  securing  roads  was  for 
companies  to  construct  them  and  charge  toll,  such  com- 
panies often  securing  a  bonus  from  villages  and  towns. 
During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  im- 
provements of  transportation  were  in  three  directions; 
namely,  wagon  roads,  canals  and  rivers.  But  about  the 
middle  of  the  century  railway  transportation  began  to 
assume  great  importance  as  a  practicable  feature,  and  it 
grew  so  rapidly  that  the  development  in  other  lines  of 
transportation  took  minor  places.  Recently  electric 
roads  across  the  country  have  also  entered  the  field,  and 
again  attention  is  drawn  by  the  steel  track  from  the 
wagon  road  and  canal.  But  this  is  much  more  than 
counteracted  by  the  new  vehicles,  the  bicycle  and  the 
automobile,  which  have  helped  to  awaken  a  new  en- 
gineering era  in  highway  building.  The  improvement 
of  canals,  rivers,  harbors  and  water  shipping  generally 
has  also  taken  on  wonderful  activity.  Water  transporta- 
tion on  lakes  and  canals,  especially,  is  proving  important 
as  a  means  of  cheaply  moving  such  bulky  freight  as  coal, 
iron,  grain,  lumber  and  stone,  and  in  many  cases  fur- 
nishes corrective  competition  to  railway  transportation. 
The  intercontinental  highway  project  was  abandoned, 
as  were  also  most  of  the  plans  for  making  superior  wagon 
roads  between  cities  and  towns.  In  half  .a  century 
several  railroads  have  connected  the  Atlantic  with  the 
Pacific,  and  many  railroads  have  connected  the  North 
and  South^  while  innurnerable  branch  lines  and  trolley 


274 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


roads  have  gridironed  all  the  states,  connecting  cities 
with  cities,  cities  and  lakes  with  the  ocean,  and 
even  paralleling  canals  and  rivers.  This  kind  of  good 
roads  has  been  in  such  great  demand  by  the  people  that 
for  the  time  being  they  were  looked  upon  as  the  main 
solution  of  the  road  problem.  Freight  is  more  cheaply 
hauled  on  steel  railways  than  on  macadamized  roadways. 
Freight  rates  have  been  marvelously  reduced.  People 
are  able  to  travel  many  times  faster  than  on  wagon  roads, 


Figure  173.    The  road  the  pioneers  traveled. 

and  at  the  same  time  with  far  less  expense,  and  with 
much  greater  comfort  and  even  with  greater  safety, 
though  the  bicycle  and  the  automobile  are  adding  a  new 
importance  to  the  well-made  highway.  These  steel  high- 
ways have  also  revolutionized  the  distribution  of  mails 
and  made  possible  the  widespread  circulation  of  news 
and  greatly  increased  the  entire  activities  of  the  whole 
people.  The  competition  of  railways  has  forced  traffic 
on    waterways   into   new    activity   and    into    developing 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


275 


Speed.  Especially  has  ocean  transportation  received 
impetus  from  this  new  form  of  steam  and  electric  high- 
ways. The  world  has  become  as  a  state  and  the  state 
as  a  county  in  respect  to  distances  or  the  time  required 
to  travel  or  to  transport  materials  and  spread  the 
world's  news.  Wagon  roads,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
become  only  the  terminal  branches,  the  capillaries,  to  the 
great  transportation  or  circulatory  system  of  the  country 
and  the  world.    The  people  have  been  eager  for  railway 


Figure  174.     The  same  road  as  in  Fig.  173,  prepared  with  macadam  stone  surfacing 
for  a  civilization  with  consolidated  rural  schools. 


accommodations.  They  have  contentedly  paid  high 
freight  and  passenger  charges,  and  railroading  has  been 
sufficiently  profitable  to  attract  capital  so  that  railroads 
have  been  built  into  all  sections  of  the  country,  often 
reaching  out  far  beyond  settlements,  thus  carrying 
civilization  to  the  wilderness.  Towns  and  counties  have 
voted  bonds  to  attract  railways,  the  contest  often  run- 
ning high  between  towns  desiring  the  location  of  the 
new  lines.  Thus  the  attention  of  the  people  has  been 
directed  toward  securing  the  superb  system  of  railway 


276  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

transportation   now   well   advanced    toward    completion. 

Road  building  must  be  pushed  forward. — While  the 
people  have  done  much  during  this  half  century  of  rail- 
way and  shipbuilding  to  build  up  the  country  highways, 
there  is  need  of  very  much  greater  energy  applied  in 
this  direction.  A  new  and  mighty  movement  like  that 
which  built  up  a  system  of  railways  is  needed  and  seems 
to  be  impending.  The  people  are  coming  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  farm  home  and  the  farm  business  must 
not  remain  walled  in  by  miles  of  mud.  The  prosperity 
accompanying  cheap  railroad  transportation  and  the  con- 
sequent enlargement  of  our  cities  has  given  the  farmers 
and  the  states  much  larger  means  wath  which  to  build 
wagon  roads;  and  the  people,  now  that  they  have  the 
railroad  transportation  in  a  nearly  satisfactory  condi- 
tion, are  showing  their  readiness  to  take  up  the  making 
of  wagon  roads  as  a  general  movement  and  are  pushing 
their  construction  forward.  While  the  building  of  rail- 
ways was  a  stupendous  undertaking,  the  construction  of 
high-class  wagon  roads,  generally,  over  the  vast  stretches 
of  roadway  is  even  a  more  difficult  problem.  In  half  a 
century  our  railways  have  been  developed,  but  it  is 
questionable  if  the  permanent  construction  of  our  high- 
ways can  be  dealt  with  in  so  short  a  time.  Many  believe 
that  only  by  the  general  co-operation  of  the  national 
government,  the  state  governments,  the  local  govern- 
ment and  the  farmers  can  this  be  brought  about,  with- 
out too  serious  loss  in  waiting  for  facilities  the  country 
cannot  afford  to  be  without. 

Road  building  has  been  neglected. — During  the  period 
of  railway  building  the  making  of  good  wagon  roads 
was  left  almost  entirely  to  the  tarming  communities. 
until  during  the  present  century.  Now  state  and  national 
movements  looking  to  general  co-operatiou  have  been 
started,  though  not  yet  generally  well  organized.  The 
cities,  having  grown  very  rapidly,  have  been  occupied  in 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  2.^^ 

building  their  own  roads,  the  streets,  and  their  task  in 
that  line  is  only  well  begun.  The  government  and 
states,  as  well  as  counties  and  towns,  have  devoted  large 
subsidies  to  railways,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  county  has  until 
recently  been  the  largest  unit  to  appropriate  money  for 
wagon  roads.  In  many  cases  the  whole  burden  has  been 
left  with  the  township  or  with  the  sub-district  within  the 
township.  Railways  have  been  pushed  forward  by  im- 
mense capital  aggregated  in  the  hands  of  corporations 
or  individuals,  while  the  construction  of  wagon  roads 
has  been  left  to  the  votes  of  the  people  not  well  organ- 
ized into  co-operative  bodies.  Capital  invested  in  rail- 
ways has  been  profitable  to  the  capitalists,  and  to  the 
people  as  well.  Money  and  labor  invested  in  country 
roads  have  been  valuable  to  the  people,  but  in  a  way 
which  has  not  been  fully  recognized  by  the  persons 
doing  the  work  or  paying  the  taxes.  The  self-interest 
of  the  individual  farmer  has  not  been  sufficient  to  induce 
him  to  do  more  than  his  minimum  share  toward  making 
good  roads.  The  wisdom  and  the  leadership  of  our 
largest  co-operative  units,  the  state  and  national  gov- 
ernments, have  been  called  for  by  those  directing  the 
movement  to  secure  much  more  attention  to  a  large  and 
systematic  movement  in  highway  improvement. 

Investment  in  good  roads  pays. — Cases  where  money 
has  been  invested  in  properly  built  country  roads  with- 
out the  people  feeling  that  the  investment  has  paid,  are 
rare.  Our  expenditure  in  country  road  building  has  been 
very  much  underdone.  We  could  afford  to  expend  an- 
nually two  to  four  times  as  much  in  bettering  our  roads, 
and  we  can  expend  it  in  a  far  better  manner  if  we  will. 

Good  roads  help  the  farmer. — ^They  increase  the  farm 
value  of  his  marketable  products.  They  enable  him  to 
market  bulky  products  which  he  could  not  market  with 
roads  over  which  he  could  not  easily  transport  them.  They 
help  him  by  reducing  the  cost  at  the  farm  of  purchased 


2/8  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

products.  Better  roadways  in  the  neighborhood  leading 
to  a  village,  to  the  church  and  to  the  school,  increase 
the  value  of  the  land. 

Good  roads  make  life  more  pleasant  on  the  farm.  The 
business  of  farming  can  be  done  in  a  more  agreeable 
and  less  cramped  v^ay  if  there  is  an  easy  way  of  com- 
munication with  others.  Intellectually,  life  is  more 
pleasant,  interesting  and  elevating  if  the  means  of  com- 
munication with  neighbors  and  with  the  outside  world 
are  made  better;  if  free  transportation  of  pupils  is  pro- 
vided, and  if  mail  can  be  received  daily.  Socially,  farm 
life  is  improved  by  good  roads  since  they  lessen  the 
isolation  and  make  visiting  between  families  more  fre- 
quent; they  result  in  more  frequent  reciprocal  visits 
with  friends  in  village  or  city,  and  aid  in  building  up 
rural  social  organization.  Churches  and  co-operative 
business  organizations  can  be  more  highly  developed, 
both  in  rural  communities  and  in  villages.  Rural  de- 
livery of  mail  is  a  twentieth-century  improvement,  the 
value  of  which  can  hardly  be  compared  to  any  other 
public  service  in  which  the  farmers  and  the  nation  are 
interested,  and  it  is  made  more  practicable  by  improved 
roads. 

Good  roads  and  country  life  education. — The  most  im- 
portant agricultural  problem,  and  the  most  important 
educational  problem,  now  up  for  solution  is  the  peda- 
gogical organization  of  the  splendid  practical  and  scien- 
tific body  of  knowledge  concerning  farming  and  home 
making  being  accumulated  by  experiment  stations  and 
departments  of  agriculture,  and  the  development  of 
schools  adapted  to  carrying  this  knowledge  to  all  farm 
youth.  Here,  as  in  city  life  education,  three  grades  of 
schools  are  being  organized — rural  schools,  agricultural 
high  schools  and  agricultural  colleges — parallel  to  the 
city  primary  schools,  city  high  schools  and  the  colleges 
of  the  university.     The  most  important  §t^p  in  this,  work 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  279 

is  the  redistricting  and  consolidating  of  the  rural  schools 
in  all  regions  where  good  farming  lands  warrant  this 
increased  expense  for  school  facilities.  Hauling  rural 
pupils  to  the  consolidated  rural  school  out  in  the  open 
country  and  to  the  village  and  town  school  is  the  most 
expensive  item  of  this  necessary  system,  and  to  make  it 
practical  and  not  too  expensive  the  roads  must  be  pass- 
able at  all  times. 

Good  roads  help  cities  and  villages. — By  making  farm- 
ing more  prosperous,  and  rural  life  richer,  the  resources 
of  villages  and  cities  are  increased.  The  city  and  coun- 
try are  brought  into  closer  communication.  The  city 
needs  an  easier  way  of  communicating  with  the  coun- 
try, as  well  as  the  country  with  the  city.  With  good 
roads  the  markets  of  the  city  are  more  regularly  sup- 
plied with  foods  and  other  farm  products.  Business  is 
generally  accelerated  in  the  city  by  being  placed  in  more 
easy  communication  with  the  country.  A  more  active 
market  is  provided  for  manufactured  and  imported 
products.  Professional  and  expert  services  are  in  greater 
demand  because  the  farmers  can  better  reach  the  city, 
and  physicians,  artisans  and  others  can  more  easily  serve 
the  country.  In  villages,  especially,  business,  schools, 
churches,  societies,  etc.,  are  better  built  up  since  the 
number  of  people  who  can  easily  reach  these  smaller 
centers  of  population  is  widened  by  better  roadways. 
Good  country  roads  make  better  carriage,  bicycle  and 
automobile  ways  for  city  people  as  well  as  for  country 
people  to  use  and  enjoy. 

Good  roads  help  transportation  companies. — If  we 
could  now  have  the  bettered  roads  which  the  next  half 
century  will  see,  we  would  add  greatly  to  the  profits 
of  railway  and  other  transportation  companies.  Prod- 
ucts hauled  to  the  railway,  canal  or  river  stations  would 
be  greatly  increased.  Farmers  could  market  more  of 
those  bulky  products  which  bring  more  freight  receipts. 


280  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Besides,  they  could  purchase  products  of  heavier  bulk. 
By  enabling  farmers  and  others  to  get  to  and  from  the 
cities  more  easily  passenger  traffic  v^ould  be  increased. 
With  good  roads  there  would  be  no  muddy  time  in 
spring  or  fall  when  crops  could  not  be  marketed,  thus 
congesting  traffic  at  other  seasons  of  the  year,  and  less 
rolling  stock  would  be  needed  on  railroads  for  emergen- 
cies. As  we  increase  the  ability  of  the  farmer  to  go 
about  among  his  neighbors  and  to  distant  towns  and 
cities,  co-operation  among  farmers  and  between  farmers 
and  corporations  becomes  more  practical  and  there  is 
less  opportunity  for  friction  ;  there  is  a  closer  fellowship 
everywhere. 

Road  legislation. — In  some  respects  the  making  of 
laws  relating  to  public  highways  in  most  American 
states  is  decidedly  behind  the  times.  Some  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  which  must  be  recognized  in  a  public 
movement  for  building  roads  are  not  found  in  the  laws 
of  most  of  the  states.  As  a  rule,  there  is  no  adequate 
provision  contemplated  in  our  laws  for  the  surveying 
and  making  of  general  plans  for  systems  of  roads  nor 
detailed  engineering  plans  for  their  construction. 
Neither  do  the  laws  sufficiently  arrange  for  superin- 
tending the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roadways. 
The  work  is  too  often  left  to  men  with  very  short  tenure 
of  office  not  trained  in  that  phase  of  engineering  which 
has  to  do  with  planning,  building  or  maintaining  these 
important  arteries  of  commerce. 

Laws  should  provide  more  liberally  for  educating  men 
in  road  making  and  for  seeking  the  best  methods  of 
building  roads.  A  detailed  knowledge  is  needed  of 
where  good  road  material  is  to  be  found,  how  secured 
and  how  used.  Too  little  is  known  of  the  use  of  diflferent 
kinds  of  gravel,  stones  or  other  materials  useful  in  road 
surfacing,  and  even  the  nomenclature  of  materials  useful 
in  road  surfaces  should  be  better  developed.     Men  edu- 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  28 1 

cated  in  road  improvement  and  maintenance  are  the 
public's  advisers  and  they  should  be  made  responsible 
for  conservative  leadership  in  inaugurating  movements 
for  raising  the  funds  and  arranging  for  the  construction 
of  improved  roadways. 

Most  encouraging  progress  is,  however,  being  made. 
A  number  of  states  have  highway  commissions  or 
bureaus,  and  the  office  of  public  roads  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  devoted  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  science  of  road  work  and  to  giving 
advice  and  assistance  to  road  bureaus,  to  road  officers 
and  to  private  parties  in  the  various  states.  A  class  of 
men  trained  in  road  building  is  being  developed,  and 
annually  there  is  progress  in  laws  relating  to  the  im- 
provement  of  roads.  The  amount  of  money  being  invested 
in  road  construction  and  road  maintenance  is  being  in- 
creased, though  not  so  rapidly  as  would  be  profitable. 

Highway  funds. — The  procuring  of  funds  for  the  large 
expense  which  must  necessarily  be  incurred  in  the  gen- 
eral improvement  of  our  highways  is  a  serious  matter. 
Heretofore  in  most  states  the  farmers  have  paid  almost 
the  entire  expense.  This  has  become  so  nearly  the  cus- 
tom that  it  has  seemed  revolutionary  to  talk  of  other 
methods.  It  has  been  recognized  that  the  county  should 
pay  for  large  bridges  and  for  special  improvements,  as 
macadamizing  the  principal  roadways.  It  is  only  re- 
cently that  public  opinion  has  turned  to  the  states  and 
even  to  the  nation  as  sources  of  additional  funds  for  con- 
structing roads,  and  especially  funds  for  studying  out 
the  best  plans  for  making  highways,  for  finding  the  best 
materials  for  road  surfaces,  for  making  the  necessary 
surveys  preparatory  to  road  building  and  for  superin- 
tending the  work  of  constructing  roads. 

If  the  state  furnishes  part  of  the  means  with  which 
to  improve  the  roads,  she  gains  the  right  to  assist  in 
superintending  the  work.     Farmers  have  been  loath  to 


282  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

give  Up  this  right.  Some  have  feared  that  giving  up 
this  right  would  take  away  from  them  the  opportunity  to 
earn  wages  in  road  construction,  and  would  entail  upon 
them  larger  expense  annually,  in  road  improvements. 
But  since  the  benefits  wilt  be  so  very  much  greater  than 
the  cost,  there  seems  no  general  reason  for  doubt  but 
that  a  fairly  general  plan  of  state  aid  will,  in  the  end, 
greatly  benefit  the  farmers  and  also  the  state  at  large. 
Even  the  plan  for  national  aid  in  road  building  has  gained 
in  popularity  during  the  first  decade  of  the  century. 

The  method  of  taxation. — Whatever  money  the  state 
provides  to  aid  a  locality  in  building  a  road  may  prop- 
erly come  from  general  state  funds.  It  is  quite  proper, 
however,  for  the  state  to  create  special  funds  for  high- 
way improvement.  So,  in  some  states,  the  constitution 
devotes  to  its  road  and  bridge  fund  such  funds  as  accrue 
from  interest  on  certain  investments,  as  from  lands  given 
by  the  national  government  to  the  state  for  internal  im- 
provements. Likewise  some  assert  that  the  state  might 
properly  devote  the  proceeds  of  special  inheritance  taxes 
or  taxes  on  the  income  of  large  transportation,  and  other 
corporations. 

In  most  states  the  county  draws  upon  its  current  ex- 
pense fund,  or  places  upon  its  tax  levies  a  special  tax  for 
the  construction  of  bridges  and  roads  to  aid  townships 
or  localities.  In  many  states  the  township  levies  a 
special  property  tax,  also  in  some  cases  a  personal  tax 
called  a  poll  tax  is  levied,  to  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  roads.  Formerly  the  general  plan  prevailed  of 
giving  each  man  the  privilege  of  paying  his  poll  tax  in 
cash  or  of  working  its  equivalent  out  on  the  roads. 
Under  a  more  businesslike  arrangement  of  road  con- 
struction and  maintenance,  it  seems  wise  to  have  all 
taxes  paid  in  money,  that  the  work  may  be  in  the  hands 
of  superintendents  and  laborers,  who,  with  experience, 
become  expert  in  building  and  caring  for  roads. 


ROADS  AND   BRIDGES  283 

Pike  district,  as  here  used,  means  the  legal  co-opera- 
tive organization  of  the  people  owning  land  along  or 
near  to  the  leading  road  which  they  desire  to  have  mate- 
rially improved.  Laws  can  be  framed  to  facilitate  the 
organization  of  such  districts  in  a  way  that  the  first 
cost  of  the  improvements  to  be  borne  locally  can  be 
equally  distributed  over  the  adjacent  and  nearby  lands 
which  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  the  improved  road. 
The  law  should  also  contemplate  drawing  upon  county 
funds  and  even  state  funds  to  aid  communities  that 
are  thus  situated,  and  thus  provide  a  co-operative 
organization — the  landowners,  the  county  and  the 
state — which  will  pay  the  larger  portion  of  the  ex- 
pense of  making  a  superior  road.  One  of  the  greatest 
advantages  of  a  state  highway  fund  is  that  the  state 
government  can  use  it  to  induce  farmers  and  even  cities 
and  villages  to  unite  in  co-operative  associations  to  im- 
prove the  roads.  One  of  the  greatest  functions  of  gov- 
ernment is  to  lead  its  communities  to  enter  upon  larger 
needed  enterprises  than  they  alone  would  undertake. 
The  opportunity  to  secure  state  funds  will  induce  the 
people  of  a  locality  to  forget  their  own  differences  and 
unite  for  the   larger  objects. 

Cities  sometimes  aid. — In  the  improvement  of  roads, 
state  laws  should  also  contemplate  requiring  aid  from 
cities.  In  many  cases  cities  pay  for  part  of  the  roads  radi- 
ating from  their  centers,  as  they  are  thus  placed  in  better 
communication  with  the  farm  communities;  and  without 
laws  looking  to  co-operation  between  city  and  country, 
the  city  must  often  do  without  good  roads  leading  to 
the  surrounding  country.  Private  funds  are  often  used 
for  making  roads.  It  would  be  quite  proper  for  the  laws 
to  recognize  parties  who  will  invest  money  in  roads  by 
abating  part  of  their  road  taxes  for  a  series  of  years  in 
return  for  their  advancing  means  with  which  to  build  a 
road   in   which   they   are   especially   interested,   but   by 


284  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

which  the  public  is  also  benefited.  Care  must  be  taken, 
in  framing  this  kind  of  legislation,  to  prevent  abuses, 
but  it  would  seem  quite  right  to  enable  a  board  of  county 
commissioners  to  make  a  contract  with  a  landowner 
under  which  he  might  make  a  much-needed  road,  with 
the  understanding  that  he  should  be  for  some  specified 
time  exempted  from  a  large  portion  of  his  road  taxes. 
Requiring  the  county  board  to  secure  the  consent  of  the 
state  highway  officers  to  legalize  such  contracts  with  pri- 
vate parties  would  be  an  ample  safeguard. 

Co-operation  in  road  making  should  be  encouraged  by 
the  state. — Thus  the  state,  the  county,  the  township,  the 
pike  district  and  the  individual  should  all  be  brought 
into  co-operation.  This  principle  has  not  been  fully 
recognized  by  our  law  makers.  A  state  highway  bureau, 
with  even  a  small  amount  of  money  at  its  command, 
and  with  liberty  to  use  this  money  to  help  those  who  are 
ready  to  help  themselves — who  are  anxious  to  make 
roads  under  the  best  possible  plans — does  a  great  deal  of 
good  in  bringing  about  co-operation  and  in  developing 
a  far  better  system  of  highways.  Such  a  bureau  in- 
duces counties  to  co-operate  better  in  building  intercity 
railways.  It  induces  the  organization  of  co-operative 
pike  districts,  and  aids  in  finding  the  best  materials  for 
making  roads  and  devising  the  best  plans  for  construc- 
tion and  maintenance.  It  advises  where  to  get  the  best 
road  machinery  and  aids  in  selecting  road  engineers, 
county  engineers  and  superintendents  of  road  main- 
tenance, capable  and  honest,  who  will  serve  the  public 
well.  The  office  of  public  roads  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  likewise  is  of  much  service, 
since,  with  a  small  fund,  it  aids  in  promoting  the  co- 
operative construction  of  the  roadways. 

Speaking  broadly,  there  are  in  the  United  States 
2,225,000  miles  of  public  highways.  On  these  there  is  spent 
annually  approximately  $90,000,000,  or  $1  per  capita  for 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  285 

the  whole  people,  or  $3  per  capita  for  those  classes  con- 
cerned directly  with  agriculture.  Of  this  sum  the 
larger  part  is  used  for  maintenance  and  the  smaller  part 
for  construction.  The  cost  of  construction  averages 
approximately  $500  per  mile  for  earth  roads,  $1,500  for 
gravel  and  sand-clay  roads  and  $6,000  for  stone,  macadam 
roads. 

For  the  purposes  of  estimating  the  cost  of  further 
construction,  it  may  be  assumed  that  there  are  yet  to 
be  constructed  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  mileage,  or 
225,000  miles  of  macadam;  30  per  cent,  or  675,000  of 
gravel  and  sand-clay  roads;  and  40  per  cent,  or  1,000,000 
of  earth  roads.  Using  the  above  figures,  the  total  cost 
of  macadam  roads  will  be  $1,350,000,000;  of  gravel 
roads,  $1,012,500,000,  and  of  earth  roads,  $500,000,000,  or 
a  total  of  $2,862,500,000.  To  this  may  be  added  an 
estimate  of  $187,500,000  for  the  construction  of  bridges 
and  permanent  culverts,  making  a  total  of  $3,000,000,000. 
By  making  the  expenditure  for  construction  alone 
$100,000,000  annually,  this  construction  work  could 
be  completed  in  30  years.  The  more  highly  developed 
road  surfaces  will  cause  an  increase  in  the  cost  of 
maintenance  also,  but  the  increase  in  population  will, 
on  the  other  hand,  help  to  keep  down  the  cost  per  capita. 
The  increased  value  of  farm  lands  which  will  result  from 
the  construction  of  a  system  of  good  roads  will  alone 
more  than  justify  the  expense. 

Improved  plans  for  farming;  better  farm  machinery, 
plants  and  animals;  improved  railway  and  water  trans- 
portation, rural  mail  delivery,  rural  telephones  and  the 
greater  wealth-producing  non-agricultural  industries,  are 
all  so  enormously  increasing  the  country's  wealth  that 
there  is  coming  an  abundance  to  draw  upon  for  the  needed 
sums  to  invest  in  permanent  roadways  in  rural  as  well 
as  in  urban  communities.  If  the  rural  communities  can- 
not with  sufficient  rapidity  organize  and  improve  their 


286  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

roads,  the  state  and  national  governments,  in  the  interest 
of  the  whole  people,  should  aid  in  organizing  them.  By- 
providing  a  portion  of  the  money,  the  larger  co-operative 
unit  can  purchase  the  right  of  the  local  community  to 
aid  in  administering  road  affairs  in  which  the  interest 
of  the  state  and  national  governments  is  as  clearly  de- 
fined, though  not  to  the  same  extent,  as  the  locality. 

SURVEYING  AND  MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES 

The  road  engineer  requires  a  special  education  in  civil 
engineering,  in  surveying,  in  devising  practical  plans  and 
in  superintending  construction  work.  Those  responsible 
for  the  construction  of  public  highways  should  be  more 
enterprising  in  employing  men  trained  in  planning  and 
superintending  construction.  The  annual  loss  from 
plans  poorly  made  is  much  more  than  sufficient  to  pay  a 
sufficient  number  of  highway  engineers  to  place  our  road 
building  on  a  scientific  basis. 

The  preliminary  survey. — Too  many  of  our  highways 
have  been  located  by  persons  who  were  interested  in 
roads  accommodating  a  particular  point  or  person  rather 
than  by  county  or  state  officials  who  take  into  consider- 
ation the  greatest  benefit  to  the  largest  number  of  people 
at  present  and  in  future.  The  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered in  locating  the  line  of  the  road  is  the  preliminary 
survey,  which  decides  in  a  broad  way  the  general  location 
of  the  road,  and  locates  bridges  and  culverts  and  deter- 
mines the  cost  as  compared  with  other  proposed  lines. 
Since  the  hauling  of  surfacing  materials  is  often  a  very 
expensive  operation,  consideration  should  be  given  to 
the  proximity  of  materials  which  will  make  a  good  sur- 
face for  the  future  finished  road. 

Locating  pioneer  roads. — In  hilly  lands  the  pioneers 
locate  their  roadways  along  the  lines  of  easiest  travel, 
or  along  the  lines  where  it  requires  the  least  work  to 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  287 

make  an  opening.  The  road  is  often  made  to  go  around 
some  wet  place  or  to  escape  a  sharp  hill.  Soon,  how- 
ever, the  settlement  of  the  lands  and  farms  results  in 
the  road  being  placed  along  the  straight  lines  around 
the  "  sections,"  as  surveyed  a  mile  square  by  the  na- 
tional government,  or  along  subdivision  lines  of  the 
section.  Thus  it  has  occurred  that  the  roads  of  the 
prairie  states  follow  straight  lines,  requiring  the  travel 
to  be  around  square  corners,  making  longer  distances, 
though  on  the  other  hand  making  the  fields  of  the 
farmers  rectangular  and  more  easily  tilled. 

In  hilly  countries  it  is  especially  advantageous  to  have 
the  county  board,  in  pioneer  times,  select  the  routes  so 
as  to  make  the  grades  fairly  easy.  And  it  is  often  neces- 
sary, in  later  years,  for  the  county  to  straighten  the  lines 
at  considerable  expense.  The  distance  around  a  hill  is 
often  no  greater  than  the  distance  over  it,  just  as  the 
distance  is  no  greater  to  follow  the  bail  from  one  side 
of  a  pail  to  the  other,  whether  it  is  erect  or  lies  flat  on 
the  top  of  the  pail.  Ofttimes  the  heavy  grades  of  a  hill  can 
be  saved  by  going  little  or  no  further,  around  or  near 
the  foot  of  the  hill.  It  is  not  so  important  in  hilly  coun- 
tries to  have  square  fields ;  in  fact,  not  so  practical,  as  in 
a  gently  undulating  or  level  country.  Some  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  ease  of  making  the  pioneer  road 
and  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  make  a  temporary  loca- 
tion, but  the  general  plan  should  provide  for  its  being 
straightened  out,  as  means  can  be  afforded.  The  gen- 
eral plan  should  be  recorded  that  it  may  sometime  be 
followed  out.  The  relocation  of  roads  should  be  done 
with  great  care,  since  the  construction  of  permanent 
roadways  often  requires  the  expenditure  of  large  sums 
of  money. 

In  swampy  countries  the  roadway  should  often  be 
located  where  the  combined  advantages  of  having  a  road 
and  draining  the  swamp  will  best  serve  the  united  inter- 


288  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

ests  of  the  traveling  public  and  those  interested  in  com- 
bining the  draining  of  the  adjoining  swampy  fields  with 
the  drainage  of  the  roadway.  The  road  line  should  be 
located  where  the  moving  of  materials  needed  to  cover 
the  roadway  in  the  swampy  land  will  not  be  too  expen- 
sive. In  the  beginning  only  a  few  general  roads  should 
be  made  at  rather  wide  intervals  across  large  swampy 
areas,  the  cross  roads  being  constructed  later  on. 

Survey  for  construction. — Once  the  line  of  road  is  deter- 
mined, and  in  a  general  way  the  depth  of  the  cuts  and  fills 
decided  upon,  there  should  be  a  survey  for  construc- 
tion. Specifications  should  be  made,  even  if  only  cheaply 
surveyed  in  cases  of  light  grades,  for  the  depths  to 
excavate  each  cut  and  to  fill  each  grade.  Likewise, 
specifications  should  be  made  for  the  kinds  of  material 
to  use  in  constructing  the  surface,  the  depths  to  place 
each  layer  of  surfacing  material,  and  the  manner  of  lay- 
ing, mixing  and  packing  these  layers.  Specifications 
should  be  made  for  bridges  and  culverts.  In  determin- 
ing upon  the  grade  many  things  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  rule  followed  by  some  railroad 
engineers  that  a  certain  grade,  say  20  feet  to  the  mile 
throughout  the  entire  line,  shall  not  be  exceeded,  is  not 
quite  so  important  in  highway  engineering  as  in  railroad 
construction.  Horses  drawing  a  load,  or  men  propelling 
a  bicycle,  have  stored  up  energy,  which  by  an  extra 
effort  may  be  utilized  in  larger  amounts  for  a  short  time. 
This  enables  the  horse  or  bicyclist  to  mount  unusually 
steep  grades  if  they  are  not  too  long.  As  automobiles 
come  into  general  use  for  carriage  and  freight  purposes, 
and  rural  electric  railways  are  used,  there  is  greater  need 
of  avoiding  steep  grades  in  our  wagon  roads  even  for 
short  distances.  A  copy  of  the  profile  and  of  the  notes 
showing  the  depths  at  the  cross-section  stakes  should 
be  furnished  to  the  contractor  or  superintendent  of  con- 
struction. 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  289 

In  cases  where  much  grading  is  necessary  the  road- 
way should  be  surveyed  and  stakes  placed  at  either 
side  of  the  proposed  road.  On  stakes  at  the  sides  of  the 
roadway  are  placed  figures  showing  how  deep  to  cut  or 
how  deep  to  fill  at  each  successive  point  along  the  line 
of  the  road.  Diagrams  should  also  be  made  showing  the 
width  of  the  road  bed  and  the  slope  of  the  banks  in  cuts 
and  in  fills.  Frequently  the  width  for  the  road  can  be 
determined  only  with  a  knowledge  of  several  factors ; 
the  importance  of  the  road  and  the  amount  it  is  used,  the 
means  available  for  its  construction,  the  kind  of  surfac- 
ing material  to  be  applied,  and  the  volume  of  water  to 
be  carried  by  the  ditches  beside  the  road.  The  slant 
to  be  given  the  banks  in  cuts,  or  slope  on  the  sides  of 
the  grades  in  fills,  will  be  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  material  of  the  banks.  Solid  rock  may  be  left 
vertical,  loose  sand  or  running  clays  must  have  a  very 
low  slant.  Ordinary  mixed  earth  of  sand  and  clay  re- 
quires a  slant  of  30  to  45  degrees  according  to  its  ability 
to  stand.  Sometimes  fertile  soil  which  will  retain 
moisture  may  be  placed  on  the  surfaces  of  embank- 
ments and  planted  to  grasses,  which  will  prevent  them 
from  being  washed  down  by  rains. 

Specifications  for  the  surface. — While  hauling  the  heavy 
material  for  surfacing  has  become  a  comparatively  simple 
matter,  few  road  contractors  or  superintendents  under- 
stand how  to  secure  the  best  material  for  the  surface  or 
how  to  place  it  on  the  roadway  in  the  best  manner.  There 
is  greater  need  of  engineering  knowledge  and  experience 
at  this  point  than  at  any  other.  The  available  materials 
are  so  varied  in  character  and  may  be  combined  in  so 
many  ways  that  the  plans  for  making  the  earth  road,  the 
gravel  surface,  or  even  the  macadam  roadway,  cannot 
usually  be  made  in  a  theoretical  or  ofifhand  way.  In 
some  cases,  the  most  economical  and  best  way  for  man- 
aging the  construction  of  the  road  surface  can  be  deter- 


290  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

mined  only  after  the  grade  has  been  nearly  finished. 
Materials  uncovered  w^hile  excavating  cuts,  or  materials 
found  in  outside  areas  from  which  earth  is  secured  in 
constructing  the  grade,  are  often  best  to  use  alone  or  in 
combination  with  materials  brought  from  outside  in 
making  up  the  road  surface. 

In  some  instances  it  is  best  to  give  the  contractor,  and 
the  superintendent  (representing  the  public)  who  daily 
inspects  the  work,  some  latitude,  stating  the  specifica- 
tions for  the  construction  of  a  road  surface  of  a  given 
quality  and  character  in  general,  yet  binding,  terms. 

In  giving  the  contract  for  the  formation  of  the  grade 
or  substructure,  it  can  be  specified  that  the  best  mate- 
rials for  subsurfacing  found  within  the  cuts  be  spread 
on  top  of  the  substructure  as  a  foundation  upon  which 
the  surfacing  materials  are  to  be  laid.  Thus,  by  using 
gravel  from  cuts,  such  a  well-drained  solid  top  can  be 
put  on  the  substructure  that  the  superstructure  need 
not  be  made  so  thick  nor  so  expensive  as  if  such  poor 
materials  as  soft  clay  were  left  at  the  top,  or  if  the  upper 
part  of  the  substructure  were  made  up  of  alternating 
patches  of  soft  clay,  coarse  gravel,  sand,  or  sand  and 
clay  mixed,  giving  a  foundation  variable  in  rigidity  and 
uneven  in  its  capacity  for  removing  water  from  the  super- 
structure or  for  allowing  surface  water  to  percolate 
through  it. 

Where  the  surface  is-  to  be  made  of  macadam,  brick 
or  other  hard  substance,  and  something  is  known  of  the 
availability  of  sand  or  gravel  desired  as  foundation  under 
these  surfacing  materials,  the  specifications  are  easily 
written. 


ROADS  AND  BRIDGES 


291 


NOTES  BY  MAURICE  O.  ELDRIDGE 

COST       DATA 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  a  price  at  which  certain  types  of  roads  can 
be  built.  A  macadam  road  which  may  be  constructed  in  one 
part  of  the  coiintry  for  three  thousand  dollars  per  mile  cannot 
be  duplicated  in  another  part  of  the  country  for  less  than  ten 
thousand  dollars  per  mile.  The  cost  of  roads  varies  with  cost 
ot  labor,  teams  and  materials,  the  distance  the  materials  are 
hauled,  amount  of  grading  done,  etc.  On  some  roads  the  grading 
will  cost  as  much  as  all  of  the  other  items  entering  into  the  cost 
of  the  road,  while  on  another  road  of  the  same  type  there  may 
be  no  rough  grading  at  all.  The  cost  of  labor  on  roads  varies 
all  the  way  from  seventy-five  cents  to  two  dollars  per  day  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  cotmtry.  In  many  places  materials  can  be 
secured  gratis,  but  in  others  they  have  to  be  paid  for  by  the 
ton  or  cubic  yard.  Suitable  materials  are  frequently  found  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  the  road  to  be  made,  but  in  many  instances, 
materials  have  to  be  brought  long  distances  by  rail  or  boat. 

The  rates  charged  for  hauling  road  materials  by  the  railroads  in 
some  of  the  middle  western  states  are  given  below.  The  rate  given 
for  Iowa  is  the  same  as  that  charged  for  soft  or  slack  coal,  which 
is  the  lowest  rate  given  for  any  material. 

Railroad  Rates  on  Road  Materials 
Rate  per  2000  poimds 


Miles 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Iowa 

So.  Dak. 

Minn. 

25 

$1.00 

$0.80 

$0.37 

$0.90 

$0.80 

50 

1.20 

.98  2-10 

.52 

1^0 

1.20 

75 

1.40 

1.13  4-10 

.64 

1.40 

1.40 

100 

1.60 

1.26  8-10 

.74 

1.60 

1.60 

200 

2.40 

1.69  2-10 

1.04 

2.50 

2.40 

300 

3.00 

1.99 

1.24 

3.10 

3.00 

The  cost  of  hauling  rock  from  the  crusher  or  the  railroad  station 
to  the  road,  measured  one  way,  is  usually  about  twenty-five  cents 
per  cubic  yard  per  mile.  If  the  rock  is  being  hauled  from  bins 
where  the  stone  is  loaded  into  wagons  automatically,  about  seven 
or  eight  cents  per  cubic  yard  should  be  added  to  the  total  cost  of 
hauling  for  loading  and  unloading,  lost  time,  etc.  If  the  rock  is 
hauled  from  the  railroad  station,  about  fifteen  cents  per  cubic 
yard  should  be  added  for  loading  and  unloading,  lost  time,  etc. 

A  wide  difference  in  the  cost  of  roads  is  shown  by  the  following 
table,  which  gives  the  total  cost  of  roads  constructed  under  the 
direction  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  several  different  states  dxiring  the  year 
1904-05. 


292 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


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ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  293 

The  greatest  difference  in  the  cost  per  mile  of  the  roads  of  similar 
construction  is  due  to  the  width,  one  of  the  roads  being  24,  another 
32,  and  one,  practically  a  street,  70  feet  in  width.  On  account 
of  the  fact  that  no  charge  was  made  for  supervision,  or  for  ma- 
chinery, the  cost  of  these  roads  was  probably  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent  lower  than  would  be  the  case  in  ordinary  practice. 

UNIT    COST    OF    OBJECT-LESSON    MACADAM    ROAD,    SPRINGFIELD,    MO. 

The  unit  cost  of  the  road  built  under  the  direction  of  the  Office 
of  Public  Roads  at  Springfield,  Missouri,  during  the  year  1904, 
is  given  in  the  following  table,  and  will  serve  as  a  type  of  what 
can  be  done  in  many  localities,  as  the  material  of  which  this  road 
was  constructed  is  found  in  many  parts  of  that  region: 

Total  Cost 

cost  per 

^        J  .                                                                                                            per  cubic 

Crushing:                                                                                  day  yaxd 
Average  daily  output  75  cu.  yds. 

4  men    loading    wheelbarrows    and    feeding 

crusher,  at  $1.50  per  day $6.00  .08 

5  men  operating  wheelbarrows  at  $1 .00  per  day     5  .  00  .  066 

1  crusher  attendant 1.50  .02 

Water  wagon  i  time,  at  $3.00  per  day 1 .50  .02 

Fuel  oil,  etc.,  for  engine 2.50  .  033 


Total $16.50         .219 

Hauling: 

Distance  of  2  miles. 

This  was  done  by  contract  at  a  cost  of  40  cents  .40 

Preparing  suhgrade: 

A  regular  set  of  men  and  teams  was  employed 
in  this  work.  The  charge  is  therefore 
made  as  for  crushing  and  spreading,  as 
they  prepared  the  subgrade  for  about  75 
cubic  yards  each  day. 

2  teams,  at  $3.00  per  day $6.00  .08 

4  men,  at  $1.50  per  day 6.00  .08 

Total $12.00  .16 

Spreading  stone  and  binder: 

6  spreaders  at  $1.50  per  day $9.00  .12 

1   team  at  $3.00  per  day  hauling  gravel  for 

binder    3.00  .04 


Total $12.00         .16 


294  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Rolling  and  Sprinkling: 

Fuel  oil,  etc 2 .  SO  .033 

Night  watchman 1 .  50  .02 

Team  I  of  the  time,  at  $3.00  per  day 75  .01 

Total $4.75  .063 

Summary: 

Crushing,  average  daily  output  75  cu.  yds $16 .  50  .219 

Preparing  subgrade 12 .00  .16 

Hauling  stone .40 

Spreading  stone  and  binder 12 .00  .16 

Rolling  and  sprinkling 4. 75  .063 

Total , $45.25       1.002 

As  loose  material  9  inches  in  depth  were  used,  the  cost  per 
square  yard  was  therefore  about  25  cents.  The  total  amount  of 
material  used  in  the  road  was  672  cubic  yards,  and  the  total  cost 
was  $780.00.  It  will  be  noticed  that  672  cubic  yards  at  $1.00 
per  cubic  yard  would  amount  to  $672.00,  leaving  a  little  more  than 
$100  for  culvert  pipe  and  construction  of  culverts,  repairs  to  tools 
and  machinery  and  for  incidentals.  The  cost  of  this  work  was 
probably  15  per  cent,  lower  than  would  be  the  case  in  ordinary 
practice,  as  the  machinery,  expert  operators  and  superintendence 
were  furnished  free  by  the  Government. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  no  charge  was  made  for  piling  material 
at  the  crusher.  This  was  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  material 
was  furnished  free  already  piled;  for,  in  order  to  cultivate  their 
crops,  the  farmers  had  found  it  necessary  thus  to  dispose  of  the 
rock  found  in  the  fields.  This  fact,  however,  could  not  have 
materially  affected  the  cost  of  the  road,  as  similar  material  could 
have  been  secured  nearer  the  work,  but  as  it  would  have  been 
necessary  to  pick  up  the  rock  from  the  fields,  the  cost  of  picking, 
piling  and  hauling  would  have  amounted  to  about  the  same. 

Taking  the  culverts  and  incidentals  into  consideration,  this  road 
cost  about  35  cents  per  square  yard,  or  at  the  rate  of  $3,285  per 
mile  for  a  16-foot  road,  which  is  considered  a  very  reasonable  cost 
for  first-class  work.  It  would  be  safe  to  say,  therefore,  that  roads 
built  under  practically  the  same  conditions  even  after  adding  the 
necessary  cost  of  expert  supervision,  interest  and  depreciation  on 
plant,  can  be  constructed  for  about  38  to  40  cents  per  square  yard, 
or  at  the  rate  of  $3,750  per  mile  for  16-foot  roadway. 

The  cost  of  the  road  at  Springfield,  Mo.,  should  not  be  accepted 
as  a  standard  for  the  whole  country,  for  the  following  reasons: 
First:  Ordinarily  there  would  be  a  charge  for  quarrying  stone  of 
from  15  to  25  cents  per  cubic  yard;  the  average  for  the  whole 
country  would  probably  be  20  cents  per  cubic  yard.  This  item 
alone  would  increase  the  cost  given  above  5  cents  per  square  yard. 
Secpnd:    The  cost  of  rough  grading,  which  varies  between  wide 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  295 

limits  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  would  also  have  to  be 
added.  Third:  The  cost  of  hauling  materials  would  in  many- 
cases  be  from  5  to  8  cents  more  per  cubic  yard  than  was  charged 
at  Springfield,  and  the  length  of  haul  might  be  greater  or  less. 
Fourth:  If  material  is  brought  in  by  rail  or  boat  the  cost  of 
transportation  per  cubic  yard  should  be  added.  Fifth:  The  cost 
of  spreading  stone,  given  above,  was  much  higher  than  it  should 
be  on  account  of  the  fact  that  hand  labor  was  employed.  For 
spreading  screenings  by  hand  the  cost  should  be  about  16  cents 
per  cubic  yard,  as  given;  but  stone  and  gravel  can  be  spread  with 
automatic  carts  or  road  graders,  and  leveled  by  hand  for  from  2  to 
5  cents  per  cubic  yard.  Sixth :  Cost  of  rolling,  given  above,  is  low 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  material  was  very  readily  com- 
pacted. The  cost  for  rolling  stone  varies  in  different  places  from 
15  to  30  cents  per  cubic  yard,  averaging  about  25  cents,  which  is 
equivalent  to  6J  cents  per  square  yard  for  a  9-inch  road. 


COST  OF  SAND- CLAY  ROADS 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  state  definitely  the  cost  of  this 
form  of  construction,  as  it  will  be  found  to  vary  with  the  price  of 
labor,  the  length  of  haul,  the  width  of  roadway  and  depth  of 
material.  If  we  assume,  however,  that  the  clay  can  be  procured 
within  a  mile  of  the  sandy  roadway  which  is  to  be  improved,  and 
that  the  cost  of  labor  is  about  $1  and  teams  $3  per  day,  the  cost 
of  constructing  a  twelve-foot  sand-clay  roadway  on  a  sand  founda- 
tion, covered  with  clay  to  an  average  depth  of  6  inches,  would  be 
approximately  as  follows: 

Cost  per 
mile 

Crowning  and  shaping  road  with  road  machine,  estimated 
on  basis  of  two  teams  for  one  day  at  $3,  and  one 
operator  at  $1.50 $7.50 

Hauling  clay,  1760  cubic  yards,  at  25  cents 440.00 

Spreading  clay  with  road  machine,  estimated  on  basis  for 
three  days,  two  teams  at  $3  per  day,  and  operator 
at  $1.50  per  day 22.50 

Shoveling  sand  on  clay,  estimated  on  basis  of  i  cent  per 

square  yard 35.20 

Plowing,  estimated  on  basis  of  four   days    for   one   team 

at  $3  per  day 12.00 

Harrowing,  estimated  on  basis  of  two  days  for  one  team 

at  $3 6 .  00 

Shaping  and  dressing  with  road  machine,  estimated  on 
basis  of  two  days,  two  teams,  at  $3,  and  expert 
operator  at  $1.50  per  day 1 5  .  00 

Rolling,  estimated  at  J  cent  per  square  yard 35  .  20 

Total $573.40 


296  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

The  estimated  cost  per  square  yard,  therefore,  when  computed 
on  the  basis  of  this  table,  would  be  about  8  cents,  or  at  the  rate 
of  $573.40  per  mile. 

The  cost  of  building  a  sand-clay  road  on  a  clay  foundation 
would  not  vary  much  from  the  figures  given  above.  The  latter 
form  of  construction  would  probably  be  slightly  cheaper  by  reason 
of  the  fact  that  sand  can  be  more  economically  handled  than  clay. 

The  cost  of  sand-clay  construction  in  the  south  has  been  found 
to  vary  from  $200  to  $1,200  per  mile,  in  most  cases  running  from 
$300  to  $800.  A  sand-clay  road  constructed  under  the  direction 
of  the  Ofiiice  of  Public  Roads,  at  Gainesville,  Fla.,  1  mile  in  length, 
14  feet  wide,  and  having  a  9-inch  sand-clay  surface,  cost  $881.25 
per  mile,  or  10  cents  per  square  yard.  Another  sand-clay  road, 
built  under  the  direction  of  the  Office  at  Tallahassee,  Fla.,  16  feet 
wide  and  surfaced  with  about  seven  inches  of  sand-clay  mixture, 
cost  $470  per  mile,  or  about  5  cents  per  square  yard.  In  case 
changes  of  grade  have  to  be  made  with  consequent  cuts  and  fills, 
the  cost  would  be  proportionately  greater  than  the  figures  given 
above. 


COST    OF    GRADING 

In  making  plans  and  specifications  for  a  road,  the  cost  01  re- 
location or  the  cost  of  grading  the  old  road  will  have  to  be  con- 
sidered. The  amoimt  of  earth  to  be  moved  should  be  determined 
by  the  engineer  in  charge  and  the  approximate  cost  per  square 
yard  ascertained  on  a  basis  of  length  of  haul,  kind  of  material 
to  be  moved  and  cost  of  loading  and  unloading. 

If  the  drag  or  slush  scraper  is  to  be  used  (average  capacity  ^ 
cubic  yard)  the  average  cost  of  moving  earth,  according  to  Gil- 
lette, would  be  about  4^  cents  per  cubic  yard  per  100  feet.  To 
this  cost  Gillette  adds  6|  cents  per  cubic  yard  for  loading  and 
unloading,  plowing,  etc.  According  to  this  estimate  the  cost  for 
moving  earth,  say  300  feet  with  drag  scrapers,  would  be  about 
20  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Where  No.  2  wheel  scrapers  are  to  be  used  (capacity  about  \  of 
a  cubic  yard),  the  cost,  according  to  Gillette,  would  be  about 
2^  cents  per  cubic  yard  per  100  feet.  To  this  cost  he  adds  6 J 
cents  per  cubic  yard  for  loading  and  unloading,  plowing,  etc., 
For  moving  earth  300  feet  with  No.  2  wheel  scrapers,  the  cost 
would,  therefore  be  about  13  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

The  cost  of  moving  earth  by  wagon  when  the  average  load  is 
1  cubic  yard,  is  given  by  Gillette,  as  ^  cent  per  cubic  yard  per 
100  feet,  wages  of  man  and  team  being  estimated  on  the  basis 
of  35  cents  per  hour.  To  this  he  adds  a  fixed  charge  of  13  cents 
per  cubic  yard  for  loading,  and  5  cents  per  cubic  yard  for  plowing. 
The  cost  for  moving  earth  on  this  basis,  by  wagons,  would  be  19^ 
cents  per  cubic  yard  for  300  feet;  or  28  cents  per  cubic  yard  per 
mile. 


ROADS  AND  BRIDGES  297 

COST  OF  ROADS  OF  VARIOUS  WIDTHS 

The  cost  of  roads  varies  not  only  with  the  depth  of  material  used, 
but  also  with  the  width.  The  following  note  of  explanation  and 
tables  regarding  the  number  of  square  yards  in  a  mile  of  road  of 
different  widths  and  the  cost  of  roads  of  different  widths  at  a 
given  price  per  square  yard  are  quoted  from  the  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Public  Roads  of  New  Jersey: 

"Any  variations  from  the  prices  given  can  be  quickly  ascer- 
tained by  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying  and  dividing  for  a  less 
or  greater  width.  For  example,  a  road  8  feet  wide  has  4, 693  J 
square  yards  in  1  mile.  To  obtain  the  number  of  square  yards 
in  a  road  having  a  width  of  9  feet,  add  ^  to  the  foregoing  figures, 
and  in  one  having  a  width  of  7  feet,  subtract  ^ ;  in  one  of  twice  the 
width  given  in  the  table  multiply  by  2." 

Square  yards  in  one  mile  of  road. 


10 

<( 



5,866  2-3 
7,040 
8,213  1-3 
9,386  2-3 
10,560 

different  widths   and 

12 

14 

16 

18 

Nuf 

nber   of 

square  yards   and   cost  per  mile  for 

various  prices 

per  square   yard. 

Width  in 

Number 

Cost  per 

Cost  per 

feet 

sq.  yds. 

sq.  yd 

mile 

8 

4,693  1-3 

$0.25 

$1,173.33  1-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.25 

1,466.66  2-3 

12 

7,040 

.25 

1,760.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.25 

2,053.33  1-3 

16 

9,396  2-3 

.25 

2,346.66  2-3 

18 

10,560. 

.25 

2,640.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.30 

1,408.00 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.30 

1,760.00 

12 

7,040 

.30 

2,112.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.30 

2,464.00 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.30 

2,816.00 

18 

10,560 

.30 

3,168.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.35 

1,642.66  2-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.35 

2,053.33  1-3 

12 

7,040 

.35 

2,464.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.35 

2,874.66  2-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.35 

3,285.33  1-3 

18 

10,560 

.35 

3,696.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.40 

1,877.33  1-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.40 

2,346.66  2-3 

12 

7,040 

.40 

2,816.00 

14 

8,231  1-3 

.40 

3,285.33  1-3 

298 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Number   of  square  yard's   and   cost  per  mile  for  different   widths  and 
various   prices   per   square   yard. — Continued. 


Width  in 

Number 

Cost  per 

Cost  per 

feet 

sq.  yds. 

sq.  yd. 

mile 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.40 

3,754.66  2-3 

18 

10,560 

.40 

4,224.00 

8 

9,693  1-3 

.45 

2,112.00 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.45 

2,640.00 

12 

7,040 

.45 

3,168.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.45 

3,696.00 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.45 

4,224.00 

18 

10,560 

.45 

4,752.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.50 

2,346.66  2-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.50 

2,933.33  1-3 

12 

7,040 

.50 

3,520.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.50 

4,106.66  2-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.50 

4,693.33  1-3 

18 

10,560 

.50 

5,280.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.60 

2,816.00 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.60 

3,520.00 

12 

7,040 

.60 

4,224.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.60 

4,928.00 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.60 

5,632.00 

18 

10,560 

.60 

6,336.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.65 

3,050.66  2-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.65 

3,^U.Z3,  1-3 

12 

7,040 

.65 

4,576.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.65 

5.338.66  2-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.65 

6;i01.33  1-3 

18 

10,560 

.65 

6,864.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.70 

3,285.33  1-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.70 

4,106.66  2-3 

12 

7,040 

.70 

4,928.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.70 

5,749.33  1-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.70 

6,570.66  2-3 

18 

10,560 

.70 

7,392.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.75 

3,520.00 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.75 

4,400.00 

12 

7,040 

.75 

5,280.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.    .75 

6,160.00 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.75 

7,040.00 

18 

10,560 

.75 

7,920.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.80 

3,754.66  2-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.80 

4,693.33  1-3 

12 

7,040 

.80 

5,632.00 

ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  299 

Number   of  square   yards   and   cost  per  mile  for  different  widths  and 
various  prices  per  square   yard — Continued 


Width  in 

Number 

Cost  per 

Cost  per 

feet 

sq.  yds. 

sq.  yd. 

mile 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.80 

6,570.66  2-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.80 

7,509.33  1-3 

18 

10,560 

.80 

8,448.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.85 

3,989.33  1-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.85 

4,986.66  2-3 

12 

7,040 

.85 

5,984.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.85 

6,981.33  1-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.85 

7,978.66  2-3 

18 

10,560 

.85 

8,976.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.90 

4,224.00 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.90 

5,280.00 

12 

7,040 

.90 

6,336.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.90 

7,392.00 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.60 

8,448.00 

18 

10,560 

.60 

9,504.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

.95 

4,458.66  2-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

.95 

5,573.33  1-3 

12 

7,040 

.95 

6,688.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

.95 

7,802.66  2-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

.95 

8,917.33  -13 

18 

10,560 

.95 

10,032.00 

8 

4,693  1-3 

1.00 

4,693.33  1-3 

10 

5,866  2-3 

1.00 

5,866.66  2-3 

12 

7,040 

1.00 

7,040.00 

14 

8,213  1-3 

1.00 

8,213.33  1-3 

16 

9,386  2-3 

1.00 

9,386.66  2-3 

18 

10,560 

1.00 

10,560.00 

Where  the  road  is  to  be  covered  with  gravel,  or  with 
a  mixture  of  gravel,  sand  and  clay,  or  with  other  forms 
of  materials  which  are  not  very  hard  nor  especially  pre- 
pared, a  great  deal  of  common  sense  must  be  used  in 
writing  specifications  and  in  following  them.  It  is 
usually  better  to  express  the  plan  in  terms  somewhat 
general,  but  to  make  the  requirements  rigid  as  to  secur- 
ing the  very  best  roadbed  practicable  under  conditions 
which  may  develop  as  the  work  nears  completion,  and 
then  have  the  work  done  under  a  competent  superin- 
tendent. Each  new  road  undertaken  brings  up  new 
problems. 


300 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


The  road  engineer,  or  person  who  has  charge  of  public 
highways,  must  have  a  sense  of  careful  discrimination 
that  he  may  not  make  a  plan  so  expensive  that  the  peo- 
ple will  never  carry  it  out.  But,  taking  all  things  into 
consideration,  he  should  make  a  plan,  which,  when  fol- 
lowed out,  will  give  the  most  permanent  road  which  it 
is  practical  under  all  the  circumstances  to  build  and 
pay  for. 

Bridges  and  culverts. — It  is  outside  the  scope  of  this 
book  to  discuss  the  intricate  problems  of  general  bridge 

engineering.  The  effort 
is  rather  to  educate  farm- 
ers in  the  lines  which 
they  often  must  manage 
unaided,  leaving  the 
planning  and  construction 
of  expensive  steel,  stone, 
cement  and  complicated 
wooden  bridges  to  bridge 

engineers  and  to   bridge- 
Figure    175.    Pioneer    wooden    culverts     are  i  ,' 
being  rapidly  supplanted  by  stone  and  cement.     COUStrUCting        COmpaniCS. 

Extensive  observation 
and  experience  warrant  some  general  advice  to  those 
made  responsible  for  the  giving  of  contracts  for  public 
bridges.  County  commissioners  sometimes  make  the 
mistake  of  deciding  upon  the  size  of  a  bridge  needed 
over  a  given  stream  without  having  first  secured  all  the 
facts.  Thus  numerous  bridges  have  been  built  too  low 
and  with  insufficient  room  allowed  between  the  abut- 
ments, or  the  abutments  have  not  been  sufficiently  well 
built  to  withstand  the  strain  of  the  occasional  excessive 
flood.  It  pays  the  board  which  is  responsible  for  the 
bridge  to  employ  a  competent  engineer  who  knows  how 
to  secure  the  facts  as  to  the  probable  height  and  force 
of  flood  water  and  how  to  estimate  the  height,  width 
and  strength  of  the  structure  necessary  to  meet  the  con- 


ROADS   AND  BRIDGES  301 

ditions.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  make  a  plan  for 
the  bridge,  as  the  representative  of  each  of  the  compet- 
ing bridge-building  firms  may  be  willing  to  submit  a 
plan  for  such  a  structure  as  his  establishment  is  qualified 
to  erect  and  deems  best  for  the  purpose.  Such  plans  can 
be  referred  to  some  authority  on  bridge  structures  as 
well  as  to  the  resident  engineer.  Competing  firms  will 
use  care  to  have  their  plans  well  made  if  they  are  re- 
quired to  submit  their  plans  to  well-known  experts. 

In  the  construction  of  culverts  and  small  bridge  struc- 
tures permanency  is  a  very  important  element.  The 
wooden  culverts  of  the  pioneer  community  should  be 
replaced  as  rapidly  as  possible  with  iron  pipes,  sewer 
pipes,  stone  archways,  cement  structures,  concrete  rein- 
forced with  iron,  or  with  small  bridges  of  a  combina- 
tion of  iron,  cement,  stone  and  wood.  All  these  forms 
of  bridges  are  comparatively  expensive  and  cannot  be 
afforded  in  the  early  days 
of  the  community.  It  is 
not  wise  to  undertake  to 
reconstruct  all  the 
bridges  of  a  district  at  once, 
but  by  making  a  few  per- 
manent structures  each 
year  the  county  or  town- 
ship will  eventually  have 
the  waterways  beneath  its  roads  made  of  such  enduring 
materials  that  their  reconstruction  every  few  years,  neces- 
sary where  wood  was  used,  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Concrete  culverts. — The  following  statement  by  Hon. 
Thomas  McDonald,  of  the  Iowa  highway  commission, 
gives  some  explicit  directions  for  making  culverts.  As 
a  rule,  it  is  wise  to  purchase  forms  of  reinforcing  bars 
manufactured   especially   for   that   purpose. 

"  Unless  the  cost  of  concrete  materials  is  very  cheap, 
and  unless  the  haul  is  short,  the  flat  top  form  of  con- 


Figure  176.     Stone  culvert. 


302  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

struction  will  prove  more  economical  than  the  arch  top 
for  culverts.  Less  concrete  is  required,  not  only  in  the 
top,  but  in  the  sides.  The  forms  are  simpler  to  build, 
and  the  cost  of  labor  is  usually  lessened. 

"  In  the  construction  of  the  flat  top  culverts  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  in  the  tops  about  i  per  cent  of  steel  in  the 
form  of  steel  rods,  bars,  old  railroad  rails,  beams,  or  the 
patented  forms  of  reinforcing  bars. 

"  The  forms  will  generally  be  built  of  2-inch  lumber 
surfaced  on  one  side  with  tight  joints  to  prevent 
__^__^___^   escape  of  the  mortar.   These 

Figure    177.     Cement   culvert    with    wing-   load,     aild     an     Unsightly     job 

will  be  produced.  These 
forms  should  be  left  in  place  about  two  weeks  at  least 
and  for  culverts  lo  or  12  feet  wide  a  longer  time. 

"  A  very  much  better  grade  of  concrete  can  be  made 
out  of  cement,  sand,  and  broken  stone  than  with  the  sand 
and  cement,  and  the  proportions  used  would  be :  one  part 
cement,  three  parts  sand,  and  six  parts  of  the  broken  stone 
for  the  sides,  wing  walls,  bottom  and  foundations  of  the 
culverts,  and  one  part  cement,  two  parts  sand,  and  four 
parts  of  the  broken  stone  for  the  top. 

"  The  rods  should  be  embedded  in  the  concrete  very 
close  to  the  under  side  of  the  top  and  near  the  inside 
of  the  side  walls.  For  a  culvert  with  a  4-foot  clear  span 
the  following  dimensions  are  recommended:  Thickness 
of  top  8  inches,  reinforced  with  ^-inch  corrugated  bars, 
spaced  8  inches  center  to  center.  If  the  sides  are  4  feet 
high  above  the  foundation  they  should  be  6  inches  thick 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  3O3 

and  reinforced  with  %-inch  corrugated  bars,  about  20 
inches  center  to  center.  If  plain  bars  are  used  a  some- 
what larger  per  cent  of  reinforcement  should  be  used. 

"  For  a  yard  of  concrete  in  the  proportions  one,  three, 
six  there  will  be  required  i.ii  barrels  of  cement,  0.47 
cubic  yards  of  sand,  and  0.94  cubic  yards  of  stone.  At 
the  prices  given  the  materials  alone  for  a  yard  of  con- 
crete would  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  $3.50,  not  includ- 
ing the  hauling  or  mixing.  For  the  one,  two,  four  con- 
crete 1.57  barrels  of  cement  will  be  required,  0.44  cubic 
yards  of  sand,  and  0.88  cubic  yards  of  broken  stone. 

"  The  forms,  which  are  always  a  costly  part  of  small 
culverts,  should  be  designed  so  that  they  can  be  used  a 
number  of  times  without  wasting  the  lumber. 

"  The  shape  of  the  culvert  is  exactly  like  a  square  box 
with  the  ends  knocked  out,  and  it  may  or  may  not  have 
a  floor.  If  it  does  not,  the  side  walls  should  be  carried 
down  to  a  good  foundation.  All  culverts  should  have 
wing  walls  built  at  the  ends  projecting  at  an  angle  of 
about  30  degrees." 

PHYSICS  OF  ROADS 

By  referring  to  the  discussion  of  the  movement  of  the 
water  in  the  soil  the  reader  will  understand  some  of  the 
physical  problems  in  road  drainage.  In  nearly  all  cases, 
water  softens  the  road,  though  in  some  cases,  as  in  sand, 
it  assists  in  making  the  road  surface  compact.  The 
principles  involved  in  farm  drainage  apply  in  a  general 
way  to  the  drainage  of  a  roadbed.  Where  a  roadbed 
is  filled  with  standing  ground  water,  it  is  more  difficult 
to  keep  it  solid  than  where  it  is  well  drained,  and  even 
an  excess  of  capillary  water  in  and  near  the  surface 
makes  most  roadways  less  solid  and  less  durable. 

It  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  roadbed  shed  the  rain 
to  the  roadside  ditch,  not  allowing  it  to  penetrate  into 


304  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

the  subsoil.  And  when  the  water  does  enter  the  sur- 
face the  substructure  is  better  if  constituted  of  sand 
gravel  or  stones,  so  that  it  will  allow  the  water  to  per 
colate  freely  downward  or  to  seep  off  sideways  through 
the  open  layers  of  the  material  of  the  roadbed  Or  it 
should  be  underdrained  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
ground  water  will  sink  to  at  least  a  few  feet  below  the 
surface.  The  upper  part  of  the  substructure  can  some- 
times be   made   of   coarse   material,   through   which   the 

water    can     seep    sideways, 
even  though  the  lower  part 
of  the  grade  is  made  of  im- 
pervious clay. 
Puddling    is    a    character 

Figure    178.     A.    wheel   on    hard   surface;     pCCUliar     tO      SOils      madc      UO 
B,  wheel  on  soft,  yielding  surface.  ^  ^ 

largely  of  clay.  They  be- 
come soft  and  mushy  when  wet,  but  if  thoroughly  mixed 
and  worked  up  while  wet,  they  do  not  allow  water  to 
pass  through  them.  If  puddled  soils  are  dried  rapidly 
they  become  hard  and  brittle.  Thus,  the  roadway  is 
often  cut  up  into  ruts  by  the  wheels  of  vehicles  and  the 
tramping  of  horses ;  depressions  in  these  puddled  places 
retain  water  as  does  a  dish,  and  when  these  become 
dry  the  road  is  made  very  rough  by  the  hard  clods 
of  earth.  In  some  cases,  these  soils  become  softened 
again  when  soaked  with  rain,  though  with  some  soils 
the  clods  remain  hard  for  an  extended  time.  Materials 
which  become  soft  when  wet,  even  though  they  are 
hard  when  dry,  are  very  poorly  suited  for  road  surfaces. 
These  clays  are  sometimes  useful  to  mix  with  gravels 
or  even  with  sand  to  help  combine  the  coarser 
materials  into  a  surface  which  will  not  be  soft 
in  wet  weather  nor  too  easily  crumbled  when 
dry.  Puddling  is  caused  by  a  readjustment  of  the 
particles  of  the  clay  when  wet.  The  cementing  mate- 
rials   harden,    holding    together    the    particles    of    soil, 


ROADS    AND    BRIDGES 


305 


as  lime  hardens  and  cements  together  the  particles  of 
sand  in  mortar.  Some  of  this  cement  is  needed  in 
loose  sands  or  gravels  to  bind  them  together  in 
making  a  firm  road  surface,  since  they  are  too  loosely- 
knit  together. 

Properties  of  surfacing  materials. — That  part  of  the  road- 
way which  receives  the  weight  of  the  passing  vehicles 
and  teams,  to  best  serve  its  purpose,  must  have  a  number 
of  qualities  of  which  solidity  is  the  first  requisite.  It  must 
be  so  solid  that  the  heavy  loads  will  not  break  it  down 
and  thus  crumble  the  crust  which  is  designed  to  lie 
intact  upon  the  substructure  of  the  roadway.  Thus,  a 
thin  hard  surface  might  not 
have  under  it  a  solid  basis 
and  it  might  be  crushed  into 
the  soft  earth  beneath  it. 
In  Figure  180  is  shown  how 
mixed  sand  and  gravel  over 
a  peaty  soil,  unless  a  foot 
thick,  will  be  shoved  into  the  soft  peat  below.  A  road 
surface  made  of  macadam  or  telford,  if  sufficiently  thick, 
will  not  be  crushed  into  the  substructure,  even  if  soft 
clay  underlies,  though  with  a  solid  substructure  a  thinner 
layer  will  suffice. 

Resistance  to  traction. — A  surface  is  desired  which  is 

hard  and  smooth  at  the  top, 
that  the  wheels  of  vehicles 
may  not  sink  in  and  be 
constantly  required  to  climb 

Figure   180.      Roadway  made  of  8  inches    r»TrAt-    nr    Aicnlone^    an    o'hcfriir- 
of   gravel    on   peat,    which    the   wheels   soon    'JVC!     Ul     UlbpidC-C    dll    UUSLi  uc 
punch  into  the  soft  muck.  ^j^^   ^^    -j   climbing  Up   a   hill. 

As  we  require  the  best  steel  in  the  edge  of  an  ax,  so  we 
require  the  hardest,  toughest  material  to  endure  the  wear 
at  the  surface  of  the  road.     (See  Figure  177.) 

Durability. — Not   only   is   it  expensive   to   make   per- 
manent grades,  but  road  surfaces  are  costly,  especially 


Figure  179.  Cross-section  of  macadam 
road.  A,  lower  layer  of  6  or  more  inclies 
of  2  to  3 -inch  stone;  B,  middle  layer  of 
1  to  2-inch  stone;  C,  layer  of  broken  stone 
under   1  inch,   dust,   etc. 


3o6 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Figure   181. 
outer  edges. 


Roadside  ditclies  witli  vertical 


if  they  must  be  often  renewed.  Thus,  in  making  a 
macadam  road,  as  in  Figure  179,  limestone  is  suitable 
for  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  bed  of  stone,  but  harder 
rock,  as  trap  rock  or  granite,  on  the  surface  will  longer 
endure  the  wearing  of  wheels  and  teams.  Some 
kinds  of  gravel,  likewise,  are  very  much  more  valuable 

for   the    upper    few   inches 
of   surface   than   are   other 
kinds.     Gravel  made  up  of 
granite  and  trap  rock  will 
wear  very  much  longer  than 
gravels  composed  of  lime- 
stone  or  other   soft   stones.     Bricks    dififer   in   hardness 
and  durability.     Paving  brick  made  in  certain  localities 
have  proven  so  superior  over  the  brick  made  in  many 
other    localities    that 
they  are   shipped  hun- 
dreds     of      miles      for 
street  and  road  paving. 
Ease  of  repairing   is 
also  an  important  prop- 
erty  of   the   road    sur- 
face.     In   this   connec- 
tion,   attention    must   be        Figure    I82.      in    throwing   earth    from    roadside 
t  1        ,•  ditch    to    the    center    of    the    roadway   with    the    re- 

£flVen     in     tne     selection    versiWe    road    maclilne    the    operator    can    make    a 
.     ,     .  f.  ditch    with    vertical    outer    bank,    leaving    the    ditch 

of    material    for    SUrfaC-    ^^"^  earth  as  shown  by  the  line  A  D;  slanting  outer 

banks,    as  at   B  F;  or  rounded  bank,   as  at   C  E. 

ing    the    road    to    the 

ease  of  getting  material  for  repairs.  Materials  for 
construction  brought  long  distances  at  much  expense 
are  sometimes  doubly  expensive  for  repairing  if  the 
same  material  must  be  brought  at  a  disadvantage. 
There  are  sometimes  less  suitable  materials  near  at 
hand  which  can  easily  be  secured  for  renewing  broken 
surfaces  and  in  the  end  are  more  practical  for  the 
original  construction  than  are  the  somewhat  better 
kinds  which  must  be  brought  long  distances^ 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  307 

THE  ROADBED 

Draining  the  roadbed. — Almost  any  kind  of  material, 
except  loose  gravel  or  sand  or  soft  peat,  will  make  a  hard 
road  under  a  roof  which  keeps  off  the  rain.  On  the  other 
hand,  no  material  except  rock  or  other  very  hard  sub- 
stance will  make  *a  satisfactory  road  surface  if  it  is  kept 
constantly  wet  by  rain  or  by  ground  water.  Water 
which  falls  upon  the  roadbed  should  be  conducted  side- 
ways into  the  roadside  ditch  by  having  the  roadways 
slope  from  the  center  to 
the  sides.  The  water  flow- 
ing from  the  surface  of  the 
road  to  the  side  ditch,  and  ^.       ,„.    „     ,  ,  ,., , 

'  Figure  183.     Bounded  ditches. 

flood    water    flowing   from 

adjacent  lands  upon  the  roadway,  should  be  taken  care 
of  by  ample  ditches.  Where  ground  water  rises  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  surface  beneath  roads  it  should  be 
carried  off  by  means  of  tile  drains.  Figures  i8i  to  189 
illustrate  roadside  ditches  of  various  forms.  In 
Figure  181  is  shown  the  earth  road  as  rounded  up  with 

the  reversible  road  ma- 
chine. The  ditches  being 
beside  fences,  their  outer 
banks  are  often  left  ver- 
tical.    The   reversible   ma- 

Figure  184.     Roadway  with  rounded  ditch  ,    .                           -                         j  •        j.     j 

on  left  side    and  neat  crop  growing  nearly  Chme     CaU      DC     SO     aCllUStea 

to    tlie    wheel    tracks.       On    right    side    the  ,        •' 

ditch  has  a  steep  bank.      Outside  tlie  bank  that        both        slaUtinST        and 

and  between  the  bank  and   the  wheel  track  <^ 

are  areas  uncouth  with  large  weeds.  rOUndcd       ditchcS        CaU        bc 

made  as  shown  in  Figures  182,  183  and  184.  Where  the 
slush  or  drag  scraper  is  used  to  make  roadside  ditches 
they  are  left  in  awkward  form,  as  shown  in  Figure  185.  In 
many  cases  the  reversible  machine  can  be  used  to  finish 
the  road  and  ditches  thus  made,  leaving  them  much  in  the 
form  shown  in  Figure  181.  (See  also  Figure  207.)  At 
Figure  187  is  shown  a  cross-section  of  a  large  drainage 


3o8 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Figure     185.     Awkward    roadside     ditches 
made   with*  drag   or  slush   scraper. 


canal  on  one  side  of  a  roadway,  the  earth  excavated  from 
the  canal  having  been  used  for  the  roadbed.  At  Figure 
i88  is  shown  a  hillside  road  improperly  made,  in  which 
the  water  flowing  from  the  upper  side  of  the  hill  enters 

the  road  and  follows  down 
the  wheel  tracks,  washing 
out  a  ditch  in  the  center  of 
the  roadway.  In  Figure 
189  this  same  road  is 
shown  with  ditch  on  the 
upper  side,  paved  with  cobblestone  or  other  material 
which  will  not  be  displaced  by  the  running  water.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary  at  short  intervals  down  the  hill  to 
have  the  ditch  from  the  upper  side  of  the  road  cross 
the  crown  of  the  road  to 
carry  the  water  across  the 
roadway,  as  in  Figure  190. 
By  this  means  the  water 
accumulating  in  the  ditch 
on  the  upper  side  of  the 
roadbed    is    carried    across 

and  discharged  on  the  lower  side,  thus  avoiding  a  large 
ditch,  which  would  be  necessary  to  carry  the  water  ac- 
cumulating  along   the    upper    side    of    the    roadbed    on 

a  long  hillside.  In  case  of 
very  important  roadways, 
w^here  these  cross  drains 
would  be  objectionable  be- 
cause of  making  uneven 
in  the  line  of  the 
the  water  may  be 
carried  across  the  road  by  means  of  sewer  or  drain  tiles 
used  as  sewers  to  carry  the  water  beneath  the  crown  of 
the  road,  as  in  Figure  191.  Figure  192  shows  a  tile  drain 
under  the  center  of  the  roadway,  and  Figure  193  a  tile 
drain  under  each   roadside   ditch.     Figure   194  shows  a 


Figure    186. 
Of  a  high  fill. 


Kude   ditciies   on   both  sides 


Figure     187.     Cross-section     of     drainage    plaCCS 
cnnal    along    a    roadway    with    earth    ridge    ^ 
used  as  a  roadway.  P'radc 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


309 


tile  drain  on  only  one  side  of  the  roadway  in  case  of  a 
springy  hillside  where  the  tile  drain  intercepts  the  water 
and  prevents  it  flowing  under  the  grade. 

Often  those  in  charge  of  roadways  can  enter  into 
voluntary  co-operation  with  farm  owners  to  make  a 
drainage  canal  which  will  at  once  drain  the  roadbed  and 
adjacent  fields.  Thus  an  open,  or  a  tile  drain,  through 
a  low  area,  as  A  to  B,  Figure  195,  will  be  a  practical 
way  to  drain  the  low  areas  on  the  adjoining  farms,  and 
at  the  same  time  lower  the  water  so  that  the  road  grade 
through  the  low  area,  C,  E,  need  not  be  built  so  high 
to  have  its  surface  well  drained.  By  co-operating  in 
the  expenditure,  the  net  profit  to  the  four  farmers  and  to 
the  public  is  greatly  in- 
creased over  that  of 
building  a  high  grade 
from  C  to  E  by  the  public 
and  making  a  drain  by 
the  farmers  unaided  by 
the  public  fund.  As  was 
mentioned  under  the  sub- 
ject of  drainage,  the  public,  as  represented  by  road  of- 
ficials, should  deal  liberally  with  owners  of  adjacent  wet 
lands  in  co-operating  and  making  drains  needed  to  drain 
the  road  as  well  as  to  drain  the  fields,  and  our  laws 

should    be    so    constructed 
as  to  encourage  the  co-op- 
eration   of   the   public   and 
interested    private    parties. 
Thus,     in    Figure    195,     is 
shown      a      broad      marsh 
which  needs  draining.   The 
road  must  either  have  the 
water  level  lowered  by  means  of  drainage  or  it  must  be 
built  up  rather  high.     If  the  land  is  peaty,  a  high  and 
expensive  road  will  be  necessary,  as  in  Figure  197,  and 


Figure  188.  Uphill  grade  along  the  side  of 
a  hill.  There  being  no  ditch  at  A,  the  water 
from  above,  B,  flows  on  the  center  of  the  road 
and  following  the  wheel  tracks  washes  gutters, 
C.  C. 


Figure  189.  The  same  road  as  in  Figure 
188,  but  here  a  paved  ditch  at  A  collects 
the  water  and  prevents  its  washing  over  the 
surface,   C,  which  is  thus  Icept  dry. 


3IO 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


the  weight  in  the  heavy  grade  may  compress  the  peat, 
requiring  an  unnecessary  amount  of  heavy  earth  to  keep 
the  crov^n  of  the  road  above  standing  water.  If  the  water 
is  lowered  below  the  surface  by  means  of  suitable  ditches, 
a  thinner  layer  of  clay  covered  with  gravel  will  make  a 
good  roadbed.  Private  individuals  who  contemplate  sys- 
tems of  farm  drainage  which  might  have  a  connection 

with  the  drainage  of  ad- 
jacent roadways  should 
take  into  consideration  the 
needs  of  the  roads.  Where 
it  is  practicable,  they 
should  confer  with  officials 
responsible  for  planning 
and  constructing  roads, 
that  together  they  may  de- 
vise a  plan  mutually  useful 
to  the  landowner  and  the 
public.  Here,  again,  we 
see  the  need  of  a  trained 
official  who  is  responsible 
for  planning  roads  and  to 
whom  private  individuals  may  go  with  plans  for  co- 
operative enterprises  in  which  the  public  is  interested. 
In  very  many  cases,  where 
the  road  needs  an  under- 
drain  which  must  eventu- 
ally be  placed,  the  only 
practical  outlet  is  through 

the  tile  drains  in  the  nearly  level  fields  adjoining.  If  the 
farmer  completes  his  drains  without  considering  the 
needs  of  the  roadway,  the  tiles  he  uses  and  the  grades  he 
provides  in  his  tile  drains  may  not  be  adapted  to  carrying 
the  additional  water  necessary  to  drain  the  roadway. 
It  is  plain  that  the  farmer  is  not  bound  to  make  his  drains 
so  that  the  public  may  drain  the  road   through  them, 


Figure  190.  The  water  In  the  ditch,  A. 
Figure  189,  accumulates  to  a  large  volume 
on  long  hills  and  should  be  carried  across 
the  crown  of  the  road,  as  at  X,  Y,  and  dis- 
charged on  the  lower  side,  where  it  can 
escape  over  the  surface  or  be  carried  off 
in  a  ditch.  The  grade  across  from  X  to 
Y  must  be  lower  than  the  grade  down  the 
hill.  A  drain  tile,  as  at  M,  to  carry  water 
under  the  crown  of  the  road,  is  often 
much  better  than  the  "thank-you-ma'am," 
X,    Y. 


Figure  191.      Culvert  on  hillside  road  with 
protected  masonry  at  ends. 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES 


311 


Figure   192.     Drain    tiles  laid  under  tlie 
middle  of  tlie  roadway. 


but  the  public  should  co-operate  with  him,  paying  such 
portion  of  the  necessary  expenses  as  is  equitable  and  fair. 
Without  someone  to  look  ahead  and  plan  the  roads  for 
permanent  structures  such  matters  do  not  receive  atten- 
tion, and  no  county  official  better  earns  his  salary  than 
the  competent  county  engineer. 

Grade  formation. — The  immense  expense  of  making 
cuts  and  fills  so  as  to  make  our  public  highways  more 
nearly  level,  and  the  turnpiking  of  roads  on  nearly  level 
lands  so  as  to  slightly  ele- 
vate the  crown  of  the  road 
and  to  provide  surface 
ditches  on  each  side,  is  an 
enormous  undertaking,  be- 
cause of  the  exceeding  great 

length  of  roads.  With  the  new  impulse  for  more 
thoroughgoing  road   work   this   part  of  the   road   work 

of  America  will  be   carried 
forward  with  much  energy, 
and  while  the  plans  are  not 
i„o    T-      p,   ■   .,    1  ,.  1  ♦    always     sufficiently     well 

Figure  193.     Line  of  drain  tile,  laid  1  to  -^  J 

3  feet  deep,  under  eacii  side  of  roadway.  WOrkcd       OUt       SO       that       the 

grades  will  not  need  to  be  remade,  the  work  in  general 
will  move  along  with  rapidity.  Since  distance  is  such  a 
large  element  of  cost  in 
moving  road  material,  it  is 
often  economy  to  purchase 
material  from  private  own- 
ers near  by.  In  other  cases 
the  requirements  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  surfacing 
of  the  roadbed  may  be  such 
that  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  layer  of  open,  pervious 
material  just  beneath  the  surfacing.  This  is  especially 
important  where  the  crown  of  the  road  is  but  slightly 
elevated  above  the  ground  water,  and  where  the  mate- 


Figure  194.  Drain  tile  used  to  Intercept 
water  on  upper  side  of  roadway  on  a  springy 
iiillside. 


312 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


rial  necessarily  used  for  surfacing  is  such  that  capillary 
water  will  rise  through  it  and  keep  the  surfacing  moist. 
In  this  case  it  will  pay  to  go  longer  distances,  or  to 
make  special  effort  to  purchase  suitable  material  for 
the  upper  layer  of  the  substructure  than  will  ordinarily 
be  necessary. 

Width  of  road. — Since  the  road  laws  in  most  states 
were  made  in  pioneer  times  when  lands  were  not  high- 
priced,  provision  was  often  made  for  the  liberal  width 

of   four   rods   or 


I60  ACRZ  FARM 


60  ACRE  farm"  I 


,     ^.A.'- 


Vi>ft>- 


\2k$  ACPt   FARM 


I60  ACRE    FARM 


more 
for  public  highways. 
In  many  cases  these 
could  be  cut  down, 
and  thus  add  to  the 
area  of  the  farmers' 
productive  fields. 

The  width  of  the 
surfaced  grade  depends 
upon  various  condi- 
tions.— In  case  of  a 
much  traveled  road 
the  part  available  for 
teams  should  be  24  feet 
or  even  wider,  the 
ditch  being  outside 
In  case  of  cross  roads  16  feet  is  a  good 
Farm     roads     entering    private    lands 


f-m 


r  / 


Figure  195.  Both  road  and  farms  drained  by  a 
deep  ditch.  A,  B,  made  by  road  officials  and  farm- 
ers co-operating,  into  which  drains  from  the  swamp 
and  from  the  roadway  lead. 

this   width 

average     width 

usually  need  to  be  only  8  to  12  feet  wide,  and  simple 

cartways  to  the  fields  only  wide  enough  to  accommodate 

the  ordinary  wagon,  7  or  8  feet,  while  for  bicycle  paths 

a  width  of  2  to  4  feet  is  sufficient. 

In  some  cases  where  drainage  is  extensively  united 
with  road  making,  as  in  very  flat  lands  where  heavy 
roadside  ditches  are  needed,  the  crown  of  the  road  is 
often  made  40  or  more  feet  wide,  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience in  throwing  up  earth  necessarily  taken  from 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


313 


the  broad  drains  which  form  the  roadside  ditches.  In 
other  cases,  as  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  central 
West,  only  a  single  team  path  or  narrow  roadway, 
rounded  up  with  the  reversible  machine,  making  shallow 
side  ditches,  is  all  that  is  required  because  teams  can 
easily  turn  out  on  either  side  on  the  solid  earth. 

In  prominent  roads,  the  important  subject  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  deciding  upon  the  width  is  the  kind 
of  surfacing  material  which  will  be  used  later  on  and  its 
position  on  the  crown  of  the  road,  whether  on  the  cen- 
ter or  at  one  side  of  the  center.  These  materials  are 
expensive  and  are  usually  laid  from  9  to  16  feet  wide, 
though  wider  on  very  prominent  roads. 

ECONOMIC  HANDLING  OF  EARTH 


In  no  part  of  road  making  has  machinery  been  so  well 
developed  for  saving  labor  and  for  making  possible  im- 
proved roads,  as  in  carry- 
ing dirt  from  roadside 
ditches  to  the  rounded 
roadbed     in     making     the 

1  •  J  Figure  196.     Cross-section  of  a  grade  across 

OrdmarV   country   dirt  road,  peaty  land.    The  clay  layer.   O,  is  only  a  foot 

•^            ,            -^  thick,   and  is  covered  with  8  inches  of  gravel. 

nrVizi     r<=»v«=»rml~>lf       roan  ma-  This  grade  is  not  too  heavy,   and  has  a   stiff 

xiic     Acvcisiuic       iKjaKj.  Ilia  bottom  zone,   which  will  not  be  crushed  into 

chine   is   by   far   the    most  "^«  p^^*-  ^«  ^^  ^'^'^  i^^- 
important  machine  in  road  building.    The  elevating  grader 
is    also    a    very    important    invention,    and    when    large 
amounts  of  earth  are  to  be  taken  from  ditches  on  either 
side  of  the  road  and  built  up  into  an  embankment  it  is 

„ ,    very    useful.       While    the 

greater  adaptability  of  the 
reversible  machine  makes 
it  better  for  lighter  grad- 
ing, the  less  cost  per  cubic 

Figure    197.     Heavy    grade    built    across    a  yard        of        earth  handled, 

marsh.    Tlie  weight  compresses  the  peat  at  K,                                                ^  ^ 

and  in  some   cases  causes  it  to  ooze  out  and  wherC  the  SfraueS  are  iieavy 

lulge    up,     as    at    M,     displacing    and     even  ^    ,  .     -^ 

breaking    culverts    laid    to    carry    water    from  nnn      InnC      P"1VP«;  PTPat     ITTI- 

shallow  ditches  under  the  grade.  '^"^     ^^ilgj     glVCb  giCdL     mi 


314 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  198.  Railroad  plow  used  in  breaking  up 
hard  earth  preparatory  to  handling  with  scraper  or 
reversible  machine. 


portance  to  the  elevating  grader.  The  slush  scraper, 
long  used  for  making  rounded  road  surfaces,  is  now  use- 
ful only  where  the  reversible  machine  cannot  be  used,  as 
where,  owing  to  short  length  of  roadway  or  other  dif- 
ficulty, the  reversible 
machine  cannot  be 
successfully  handled. 
The  cost  of  moving 
earth  from  shallow 
ditches  to  the  center 
of  the  road  with  the 
slush  scraper  is  so 
much  more  than  the 
cost  of  removing  it 
with  the  reversible  road  machine  that  the  latter  is  usually 
more  practicable. 

The  reversible  road  machine. — In  Figures  198  to  201, 
inclusive,  are  shown  methods  of  handling  earth  with  the 
the  reversible  road  ma- 
chine. While  no  general 
rule  can  be  laid  down  ap- 
plicable to  all  conditions, 
yet  the  plans  given  in  the 
figures  mentioned  will  il- 
lustrate the  subject  so  that 
the  operator  of  the  revers- 
ible machine  will  be  able  tc 
figure  out  for  each  soil  and 
roadbed  a  method  of  plow- 
ing up  the  earth,  carrying 
it  to  the  center  with  the 
blade     of     the     reversible 

machine  and  mixing  it,  or  laying  a  chosen  portion  on  the 
surface,  as  will  best  economize  labor  and  furnish  the  most 
useful  roadway.  In  some  cases  the  material  taken  from 
the  roadside  ditches  is  suitable  for  making  a  fairly  good 


Figure   198a.     Reversible  machine  doing  its 
own  plowing. 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES 


315 


surface,  but  In  the  majority  of  instances  the  material  thus 
rounded  up  makes  a  good  road  only  when  the  weather 
is  dry. 

Figure  198X  shows  the  road  machine  doing  its  own  plow- 
ing in  starting  a  ditch.  Usually  the  better  way  is  to  first 
throw  out  a  furrow-slice  with  a  road  plow,  shown  in  Figure 
198,  or  with  a  common  stubble  plow,  then  carry  it  over 
toward  the  center  with  the  blade  of  the  reversible 
machine.  Figure  199  shows  a  reversible  road  machine 
shoving  a  furrow-slice  toward  the   center  of  the  turn- 


Figure  199.   KeversiDle  road  macliiiie  moving  a  furrow-slice  towanl  the  center  of  the  road. 

pike.  The  blade  is  like  an  extended  moldboard,  which 
carries  the  earth  over  two  or  more  feet  each  time  around. 
These  machines  are  called  reversible,  because  there  is  a 
mechanism  for  placing  the  blade  with  the  end  now  dis- 
charging the  slice  of  earth  in  front,  and  the  end  now 
in  front  behind,  thus  enabling  the  machine  to  plow 
right-hand  in  one  direction  and,  turning  about,  serve  as  a 
left-hand  plow  and  throw  the  same  furrow  slice  over 
still    further.     On    a    road    with    a    level    cross-section, 


310 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


where  a  ditch  is  made  either  side,  the  machine  is  not 
reversed,  the  teams  going  up  one  side  and  down  the 
other,  making  the  roadway  into  a  large  backfurrow.  Where 
the  roadway  follows  a  hillside  the  reversible  feature 
enables  the  machine  to  throw  the  dirt  in  the  same  direc- 
tion one  way  whether  drawn  away  from  or  toward  the 
starting  point. 

But  the  immense  benefit  to  our  roads  by  the  use  of 
the  reversible  road  machine,  even  before  special  surfac- 
ing is  applied,  is  indeed 
very  great.  Mere  wheel 
tracks  cut  into  the  surface 
of  the  native  sod,  and  ruts 
and  miserable  mire  holes 
in  low  areas  are  becoming 
things  of  the  past,  and 
rounded  roadbeds,  from 
which  the  water  runs  into 
the  roadside  ditches,  are  a 
very  great  improvement. 
As  the  desires  and  demands 
for  better  roads  increase, 
onA   T,       u,       ^      u-  and   as   the   profits   of  our 

Figure  200.    Reversible  road  machine  carry-  ^ 

Siter^o/the  rS  ^"^^^'"^^  '^"''^'  ^""^^""^  ^^^   farms  and  other  industries 

accrue  so  that  the  expense 
can  be  borne,  these  roadbeds  will  serve  the  most  im- 
portant purpose  of  well-formed  and  properly  drained 
substructures  upon  which  to  place  a  surface  of  gravel 
or  harder  material.  The  reversible  road  machine  is  the 
forerunner  of  the  gravel  car,  the  stone  crusher  and  the 
paving  brick  kiln.  Even  the  iron  rails  adapted  to  carry- 
ing the  rural  electric  car  as  well  as  the  wheels  of  the 
produce  wagon  are  seeking  roadbeds  made  by  the  re- 
versible road  machine.  Rural  mail  delivery,  the  rural 
industries  and  the  social  life  of  rural  communities  owe 
much  to  this  simple  machine. 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


317 


The  elevating  grader.  Figures  202  to  204,  inclusive,  is 
used  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  described  for  the  revers- 
ible machine  in  grade  construction.  While  plowing  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  loosen  the  earth  that  it  may  be 
easily  moved  by  the  reversible  machine,  the  elevating 
grader  has  its  own  plow.  Eight  to  sixteen  horses  are 
required  to  operate  this  powerful  machine.  It  is  managed 
by  one  man,  while  each  driver  guides  four  or  even  eight 
horses.  It  does  not  place  the  earth  in  position  to  form 
a  well-rounded  road  and  the  reversible  road  machine 
must  be  used  to  finish  the  crown  of  the  grade.  In 
Figures  205  and  206  are  shown  how  the  earth  is  piled  in 
one  or  two  ridges  accord- 
ing to  the  width  between 
the  ditches  and  the  length 
of  the  elevating  belt  in 
use.  The  dotted  lines  in 
these  two  figures  show 
the  curved  surface  when 
the  reversible  road  ma- 
chine has  been  used  to 
smooth  the  ridged  sur- 
face left  by  the  elevating 
grader. 

The      drag      or      slush 

o/»r-o«*»*. /r.^^  T?:^.--     ■r^^\    •  Figure    201.     Reversible   road   machine   cut- 

SCraper  (Seerigurel06),in  ting    away    a    bank    to    widen    an    old    road, 

1  J-..  .        ,      .  sliowmg  how  the   blade  may  be  set  so  as  to 

aaaitlOn    to    beme^    a    more  "^ach    out    beyond   the   wheels   and   cut  down 

°  the    bank. 

expensive  means  of  car- 
rying the  earth  from  the  ditch  to  tne  center  of  the  road, 
is  not  so  well  adapted  to  making  a  good  road  surface 
as  either  of  the  machines  mentioned  above,  though  it  is 
an  indispensable  implement  to  use  in  many  places  where 
it  is  not  practicable  to  use  the  larger  machines  men- 
tioned. The  material  thus  placed  in  the  center  does  not 
pack  or  wear  evenly  and  ruts  soon  form  in  the  wheel 
tracks.     Where  the  reversible  machine  can  be  procured, 


3i8 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


roads  which  have  been  formed  by  the  slush  scraper  can 
be  worked  over  and  made  into  much  better  form.  In 
Figure  207  is  shown  the  form  of  the  ditch  and  the  crown 
of  a  road  originally  made  with  the  slush  scraper  and  re- 


Flgure  202.  Elevating  graders  are  made  in  different  sizes.  The  elevators  are  adjust- 
able so  as  to  deliver  the  dirt  near  or  far  from  the  plow,  or  to  elevate  it  into  a  dump 
wagon. 


Figure  203.    Elevating  grader,  very  cheaply  elevates  eartli  out  of  ditches  or  upon  long 
grades. 


modeled  with  the  reversible  machine.  The  slush 
scraper  can  be  advantageously  used  in  some  instances 
to  carry  the  best  material  for  the  road  surface  to  the  top 
of  the  roadbed.     If  the  best  surfacing  material  exists  in 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  3I9 

the  top  soil,  this  can  be  placed  on  the  surface  by  carrying 
the  subsoil  forward  and  placing  it  in  the  bottom  of  the 
grade  and  carrying  the  surface  soil  backward  and  plac- 
ing it  on  top  of  the  new  grade.  In  rare  cases  the  dif- 
ference in  the  quality  of  the  material  for  the  surface  will 
make  it  economy  to  use  the  slush,  wheel  or  Fresno 
scraper  rather  than  the  reversible  machine,  that  the  earth 
may  be  assorted  and  the  best  placed  above,  where  it  is 


Figure  204.    Elevating  grader  starting  to    plow   out   two   roadside  ditches    and  elevate 
the  earth  to  the  middle  of  the  roadway. 

utilized  in  making  a  better  surface.  In  such  cases  the 
road  can  be  finished  by  passing  over  several  times  with 
the  reversible  machine,  thus  shaving  the  grade  down  to  a 
uniform  line.  When  the  road  has  been  used  for  some  time 
and  the  uneven  packing  has  resulted  in  an  uneven  grade 
line,  this  can  be  remedied  by  the  reversible  machine.  By 
setting  the  blade  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
draft,  earth  is  carried  from  the  high  places  in  the  road 
and  left  in  the  low  places,  thus  making  a  smooth  and 
uniform  surface.  The  expert  operator,  with  a  good  re- 
versible machine,  can  remodel  or  repair  the  surface  of 
very  rough  earth  roads  to  a  nicety.  (See  Slush  and 
Fresno  Scrapers,  Figures  115  and  115a. 

Excavating    cuts    and    building    grades. — AVhere    the 
earth  is  to  be  moved  not  more  than  five  rods  the  slush 


320 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


•ya.  FT 


Figure  205.  Earth  as  left  by  the  elevating 
grader  in  two  ridges  on  a  wide  road  where 
the  belt  is  not  long  enough  to  carry  it  to  the 
center.  By  means  of  the  reversible  machine 
these  ridges  are  easily  distributed  along  the 
sides  and  in  the  center,  making  a  rounded 
crown  as  shown  by  the  curved  line. 


or  the  Fresno  scraper  may  often  be  used  economically. 
Where  the  material  is  to  be  moved  lo  to  20  rods,  the 
vvrheel  scraper  serves  a  most  excellent  purpose.  Where 
material  must  be  draw^n  much  more  than  20  rods, 
v^agons  or  carts,  filled  by  shovel  or  spade  or  with  a 
dump  upon  v^hich  the  earth  is  drawn  by  scrapers,  are 

to  be  preferred.  Where 
the  amount  of  earth  to  be 
handled  is  large,  and  the 
distance  long,  dump  cars 
on  a  narrow,  movable  iron 
track  are  more  econom- 
ical than  wagons.  Loaded 
cars  may  often  be  run  by 
gravitation  from  the  cut 
to  the  fill,  a  team  being  used  to  draw  the  emptied  train 
back  to  the  pit.  By  means  of  side  switches  or  double 
tracks  two  or  more  trains  can  be  operated  at  once.  In 
some  cases  the  wire  cable  may  serve  as  a  track  for  carry- 
ing iron  hanging  barrows 
full  of  earth  across  places 
where  it  is  not  practicable 
to  use  wagons  nor  to 
build  a  track  for  dump 
cars. 

Placing  the  materials 
of  the  grade. — For  the 
bulk    of    a    heavy    grade 

any  solid  earthy  material  will  serve  the  purpose,  unless 
it  be  quicksand,  which  will  not  stand  up.  In  some  in- 
stances earth  which  will  not  be  washed  out  by  rain  and 
is  adapted  to  supporting  grass  with  a  strong  sod,  should 
be  placed  on  the  outer  slanting  edge  of  the  grade.  But 
there  is  much  room  for  choice  in  selecting  the  material 
for  the  upper  layer  of  the  subsurface  and  for  the  material 
of  the  surface  of  the  roadbed.     Materials  from  the  cut 


Figure  206.  Earth  as  left  by  the  elevating 
grader  in  one  ridge  on  a  narrow  road.  The 
dotted  line  shows  the  curve  over  the  crown 
after  the  reversible  machine  has  been  used  to 
finish  the  surface. 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


321 


should  be  so  chosen  for  the  upper  part  of  the  substructure 
that  the  gravel  or  other  surfacing  material  may  have  a 
dry,  firm  bed  to  lie  on.  By  this  means,  the  amount  of 
surfacing  materials  needed  will  often  be  reduced  and 
the  expense  of  a  good  road  be  made  less.  Placing  the 
materials  systematically,  and  carefully  tramping  each 
load,  is  necessary  in  some  cases,  but  where  the  grade 
may  be  given  a  year  in  which  to  settle  before  placing  a 
permanent  surface,  it  may  easily  be  leveled  down  with 
a  reversible  road  machine 
before  the  final  surfacing 
is  laid. 

The  crowns  and  side 
ditches. — The  form  of  the 
cross-section      differs      with 

,1  r        •  ^       •    1  J         Figure    207.      The    solid    line    shows    the 

the    SUriacmg  materials    used     rough  roadbed  as  left  by  the  slush,  Fresno 

.    ,  ,  , .        or    wheel    scraper.      The    dotted    line    shows 

and    with    some    other    COndl-     the  graded  and  rounded  surface  after  it  is 

dressed    up    with    the    reversible    road    ma- 

tions.       In  case      of      loose   ^i^^e- 

gravel   and  of  clay  the  steepness  of  the   crown   should 

vary  from  ^  inch  to  i^  inches  to  the  foot. 

Where  the  center  of  the  road  is  made  up  of  materials 

which  will  be  compacted  or  rapidly  worn  by  travel,  the 

slope  from  center  to  side  is 
made  considerable.  Where 
the  surface  is  hard  and 
durable,  thus  forming  a 
perfect  watershed,  the  road 

Figure  208.     Heavy  side   ditches  with   outer  ^^Y    ^C     mOrC     ncafly     IcVcl 

banks    54    feet    apart,    with    20-foot    roadway  Kooonc/a        if       ic       Koffot*       fz-w 

and  small  side  ditches,   A   and   B,   at    top  of  L'cCd.u^C        IL       IS.        UCLLCI         L(J 

high    grade,    with    grass    seeded    on    sides    of  4-t~^^ra^     /^tr^*-     i*^     -t-Uics     r^^^-^Al 

grades  A,   C  and  B,   D.     Often   in  very  heavy  traVCl     OVCr     lU     thlS     COnOl- 

clay    roads    these    grassed    sides    can    be    used  j.'  t  .1  j 

when  the  roadway.  A,  B,  is  wet  and  soft.  tlOU.       lU    SOme    Carth    rOadS 

which  are  built  very  broad, 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  earth  from  large  drainage 
ditches  at  either  side  used  in  draining  nearly  level  lands, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  special  means  of  draining  the  center 
of  the   roadway.     In    Figure   208   is   shown   how   "  top 


322  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

ditches  "  may  be  used  to  allow  a  sharper  crown  to  be 
made  in  a  narrow  roadway  in  the  center  of  the  wide 
grade.  Small  spade  ditches  from  these  top  ditches  will 
carry  the  water  to  the  drainage  ditch  below  and,  by 
proper  management,  the  area  between  the  top  ditch  and 
the  main  ditch  can  often  be  used  for  travel.  In  level 
countries  made  up  of  fine  clay  which  is  likely  to  drift  be- 
fore the  wind  and  leave  a  deposit  in  the  large  ditch  along 
the  sides  of  the  road,  these  top  ditches  sometimes  serve 
as  a  temporary  expedient  in  repairing  the  road  until 
such  time  as  the  main  drainage  ditches  can  be  cleaned 
out  and  the  grade  dressed  up  anew.  Top  ditches  may 
sometimes  be  advantageously  used  between  the  main 
roadway  and  the  bicycle  path  to  prevent  teams  being 
driven  on  the  grassy  or  improved  bicycle  path  on  the  slope. 

CONSTRUCTING  THE  ROAD  SURFACE 

A  complete  catalogue  of  the  materials  used  for  sur- 
facing roads  would  be  extensive.  The  attempt  here  will 
be  to  discuss  only  the  several  groups  of  these  materials. 

Common  earth  and  sand  are,  of  necessity,  as  yet,  more 
used  for  roadways  than  are  all  other  classes  of  materials, 
since  the  soil  or  subsoil  thrown  up  beside  the  road  is 
easiest  utilized  for  the  roadbed.  Soils  composed  largely 
of  clay,  when  wet,  are  so  soft,  so  easily  cut  into  deep 
ruts,  and  cling  so  tenaciously  to  the  wheels  of  vehicles 
and  to  the  feet  of  animals,  that  they  are  the  most 
unsatisfactory  of  all  raw  materials ;  yet  when  dry  and 
hard  they  make  most  excellent  roads.  Fine  sand, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  nearly  as  objectionable  as  soft 
clay.  The  sand  becomes  pulverized  when  dry,  allow- 
ing the  wheels  of  vehicles  to  sink  so  deep  that  they 
are  dragged  forward  with  great  labor  by  draft  animals 
which  have  a  poor  footing;  bicycles  and  motor  vehicles 
traverse  such   roads   with   great   difficulty.     When   clay 


ROADS    AND    BRIDGES  323 

and  sand  are  found  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  about 
one  part  of  clay  to  three  parts  of  sand,  or  when  this  mix- 
ture is  artificially  made,  the  road  is  very  much  improved. 
(See  note  on  cost  of  sand-clay  roads,  page  295.) 

Gravel  as  surfacing  material. — While  gravel  does  not 
make  as  durable  roads  as  crushed  stone,  it  is  prepared 
much  cheaper,  is  very  widely  distributed,  and  can  be  so 
cheaply  procured,  in  many  cases,  that  it  is  our  most 
widely  useful  road-surfacing  material. 

Very  many  grades  or  forms  of  gravel  are  to  be  found ; 
some  coarse,  others  fine ;  some  round,  others  subangular ; 
some  soft,  as  limestone  pebbles ;  others  hard,  as  pebbles 
of  granite  or  trap  rock.  The  sharper  and  harder  the  gravel 
the  better,  as  a  rule.  The  size  which  is  most  desirable 
differs  somewhat  with  the  hardness,  form  and  other 
characters  of  the  gravel.  Some  gravels  have  clay  and 
other  binding  materials  mixed  in  with  them.  In  some 
cases  gravel  has  been  found  containing  sufficient  iron  so 
that  the  roadbed  composed  of  it  became  cemented  and 
hardened  into  a  stonelike  crust. 

Stones  which  are  valuable  for  roads. — The  trap  rock 
of  the  palisades  near  New  York  City,  owing  to  its  hard- 
ness and  wearing  ability,  is  freighted  hundreds  of  miles 
by  canal  and  by  rail  to  be  used  on  road  surfaces.  The 
immense  deposits  of  trap  rock  at  Duluth  and  at  other 
points  in  Minnesota  will  likewise  be  of  great  value  in 
making  roads  in  the  west.  The  rock  at  Duluth  might 
be  transported  by  rail ;  and  by  boat  it  could  be  cheaply 
freighted  to  Milwaukee,  Chicago,  Detroit,  Buffalo  and 
other  cities  on  the  great  lakes.  From  Taylors  Falls,  in 
addition  to  the  railways,  the  St.  Croix  and  Mississippi 
rivers  furnish  a  cheap  waterway  for  floating  trap  rock 
to  the  cities  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

The  difficulty  in  making  macadam  and  telford  roads 
is  the  immense  cost  of  quarrying,  crushing  and  trans- 
porting the  heavy  rock.     While  there  are  many  streets 


324 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


and  roads  leading  to  the  country  from  large  towns,  and 
prominent  roads  between  towns,  on  which  the  travel  is 
sufficient  to  warrant  the  county  and  city,  aided  by  the 
state,  to  make  stone  roads,  still,  owing  to  the  cost,  this 
form  of  structure  can  be  used  on  but  a  small  proportion 
ol  our  roadways.  We  must  be  content  to  use  gravel  on 
many  of  our  improved  roads,  only  slowly  changing  the 
most  important  roads  to  macadam. 

Wood  and  metal  are  used  to  a  small  extent  in  making 


Figure  209.     Wlieelers,  and  plow,  carrying  earth  from  cut  to  grade. 

roadways.  Wood  lacks  the  quality  of  endurance,  and 
is  becoming  more  expensive.  Iron  is  very  desirable,  but 
its  great  cost  precludes  its  use  except  in  very  limited 
quantities  in  special  cases.  Artificial  stone,  such  as  is 
used  in  city  streets  and  walks,  has  not  been  found  prac- 
tical for  country  roads.  Paving  brick,  however,  is  com- 
ing into  use  in  some  important  roadways,  and  is,  no 
doubt,  destined  to  be  of  great  use  in  road  making.  This 
material,  laid  in  strips  8  or  lo  feet  wide  in  the  center,  or 
at  one  side  of  the  center,  of  the  road,  makes  a  very  satis- 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES 


325 


factory  driveway.  Where  ashes  can  be  procured,  they 
make  a  most  useful  substance  for  hardening  the  surface 
of  the  road  and  to  use  as  the  lower  portion  of  the  surface 
in  bicycle  paths. 

Mixing  surface  materials. — The  mixing  of  materials  in 
making  up  the  surface  of  the  roadway  until  recently  has 
been  but  little  studied  from  a  scientific  standpoint.  As 
a  general  proposition,  however,  under  the  ordinary 
climatic  conditions  of  the  United  States,  it  may  be  said 
that  a  mixture  of  about  equal  parts  of  gravel,  sand  and 


Figuit  210.     Dump  wagon,  with  lever  and  chain  gear  to  open  and  close  drop  bottom. 

clay  forms  a  good  compact  road  surface,  when  the  sub- 
soil is  not  miry.  The  road  builder  must  constantly  use 
his  judgment  in  mixing  the  best  materials  secured  from 
cuts,  from  the  roadside  or  from  adjacent  fields  in  mak- 
ing up  the  dirt,  gravel  or  sand-clay  surface  of  the  road- 
bed of  the  common  road.  Where  the  top  of  the 
substructure  is  made  up  of  mixed  sand  and  clay,  and  pos- 
sibly some  gravel,  the  problem  is  how  to  add  gravel  or 
other  coarse  material  which  will  make  the  road  carry  a 
heavier  load  without  cutting,  will  be  smooth  and  hard 
on  the  surface,  and  will  endure  the  constant  wear  of 


S26 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


travel.  If  the  mixed  soil  contains  considerable  clay, 
coarse  gravel  mixed  in  it  will  improve  the  body  of  the 
crust  of  the  roadbed,  and  if  on  top  of  this  is  placed  some 
fine  hard  gravel,  a  fairly  good  road  will  result.  If  the 
surface  is  composed  largely  of  fine  clay  with  very  little 
sand  or  gravel  entering  into  its  composition,  a  still  larger 


Figure  liii.  Giadiiig  sui  .-.ii  utaure  for  a 
iniiciul:!m  surface,  witli  shoulders  against 
which  the  rock  rests. 


Figure  212.  First  course  of  stone  on  a 
macadam  road  as  it  appears  wlien  spread 
ready  for  rolling. 


amount  of  gravel  will  be  necessary  to  give  the  solidity 
or  carrying  strength  required  by  the  road  surface. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  surface  of  the  grade  is  com- 
posed of  sand,  it  will  often  be  best  to  use  gravel,  or 
gravel  into  which  a  small  amount  of  clay  is  mixed,  or 
clay  alone  may  be   mixed  with  the   sand.     Sand   really 


Figure  213.     Three  courses  of  a  macadam 
surface,    8  to   12   inches  deep. 


Figure  214.  Section  of  macadam 
5urface.  A.  2  to  3-inch  rock;  B,  1 
to  2-inch  sizes;  C,  fine  rock  and  dust. 


makes  a  better  substructure  than  clay,  because  any  water 
that  penetrates  the  surface  can  easily  percolate  down- 
ward, leaving  the  roadway  dry. 

Where  gravel,  sand,  clay,  ashes,  shells  or  other  sim- 
ilar materials  are  hauled  from  a  distance,  much  ex- 
pense can  often  be  saved  by  using  only  that  amount 
which,  when  mixed  with  the  earth  already  on  the  road, 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  32/ 

will   make   a  good   surface,   instead   of  building  up   the 
entire  road  crust  out  of  the  material  hauled. 

Quantities  of  gravel  for  roads  of  different  widths  and  depths 

From  the  New  Jersey  Road  Report  is  quoted  the  following 
table  which  gives  the  numbsr  of  cubic  yards  of  gravel  required 
in  the  construction  of  one  mile  of  gravel  road  of  widths  varying 
from  6  feet  to  20  feet  and  depths  from  6  to  11  inches.  These  quan- 
tities should  be  multiplied  by  11-2  to  give  the  number  of  cubic 
yards  of  loose  gravel  required  to  make  the  depths  given  below  of 
compact  gravel. 


Number  of  ft. 

Number  of  cu. 

Number  of  cu. 

Number  of  cu. 

in  width,  road 

yds.  in  road 

yds.  in  road 

yds.  in  road 

1  mile  long 

6  in.  deep 

7  in.  deep 

8  in.  deep 

6 

586  2-3 

684     4-9 

782     2-9 

7 

684  4-9 

798  14-27 

912  16-27 

8 

782  2-9 

912  16-27 

1,042  26-27 

9 

880 

1,026    2-3 

1,173     1-3 

10 

977  7-9 

1,140  20-27 

1,303  19-27 

11 

1,075  5-9 

1,254  22-27 

1,434    2-27 

12 

1,173  1-3 

1,368    8-9 

1,564    4-9 

13 

1,271  1-9 

1,482  26-27 

1,694  22-27 

14 

1,368  8-9 

1,597     1-27 

1,825     5-27 

IS 

1,466  2-3 

1,711     1-9 

1,955     5-9 

16 

1,564  4-9 

1,825     5-27 

2,085  25-27 

17 

1,662  2-9 

1,919     7-27 

2,216    8-27 

18 

1,760 

2,053     1-3 

2,346    2-3 

19 

1,857  7-9 

2,167  11-27 

2,477     1-27 

20 

1,955  5-9 

2,281  13-27 

2,607  17-27 

9  in.  deep 

10  in.  deep 

1 1  in.  deep 

6 

880 

977    7-9 

1,075      5-9 

7 

1,026  2-3 

1,140  20-27 

1,254  22-27 

8 

1,173  1-3 

1,303  19-27 

1,434    2-27 

9 

1,320 

1,466  2-3 

1,613     1-3 

10 

1,466  2-3 

1,629  17-27 

1,792  16-27 

11 

1,613  1-3 

1,792  16-27 

1,971  23-27 

12 

1,760 

1,955     5-9 

2,151     1-9 

13 

1,906  2-3 

2,118  14-27 

2,330  10-27 

14 

2,053  1-3 

2,281  13-27 

2,509  17-27 

15 

2,200 

2,444    4-9 

2,688     8-9 

16 

2,346  2-3 

2,607  11-27 

2,868     4-27 

17 

2,493  1-3 

2,770  10-27 

3,047  11-27 

18 

2,640 

2,933     1-3 

3,226     2-3 

19 

2,786  2-3 

3,096     8-27 

3,405  25-27 

20 

2,933  1-3 

3,259     7-27 

3,585     5-27 

Spreading  and  compacting  earth  and  gravel  surfaces. — 
One   very   important   consideration   in   constructing  the 


328 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


wearing  surface  of  a  road  is  evenness.  The  materials 
should  be  so  mixed  that  the  w^heel  tracks  will  wear 
evenly.  To  accomplish  this  result  requires  that  a  uniform 
mixture  be  made  and  that  it  be  spread  evenly  and  thor- 
oughly compacted.  Thus, 
in  making  a  mixture  of 
coarse  gravel,  sand  and 
clay,  which  should  be  6 
to  12  inches  deep  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the 
substructure  and  to  the  re- 

Flgure  215.     Heavy  telford  road  surface.  A.     nilirpmpnt<i      nf      fru-tr*^!      +Vi*» 
large  rock;  B.  2  to  3-lnch  rock;  C.   1  to  2-     M^^^^AUCIlLb      OI      trdVCl,    tUC 

inch  sizes;  D,  fine  rock  and  dust.  different .  materials   can   be 

put  on  in  layers.  The  first  layer  can  be  put  on  the  sub- 
structure which  has  been  carefully  smoothed  with  the 
road  machine ;  after  having  been 

dumped     from     the     wagon     or  .i^^l^3»^^  .---G 

scrapers,     this     layer     may    be 

smoothed  off  and  made  uniform       ^^^^^^^^^--''^ 
in  thickness  by  the  blade  of  the 
road    machine.     Another    layer 
may  then  be  placed  in  a  similar 
manner,    and    finally    the    third      Figure  216.  section  of  teiford  road 

,  _^,  ,  I'll  surface.    A,  large  stones  laid  by  hand 

layer,     ihe  plow  or  disk  harrow   -it  bottom  of  road;  b.  2  to  s-inch 

■^  ^  rock  laid  over  the  large  stones;  C,    1 

may  now  be  used  to  thoroughly   particKV^rock.  ^''''^''"''^  °^  ^™^" 

mix  together  all   of  the   layers. 

After  each  plowing  or  disking,  the  common  field  harrow 

should  be  used  to  level  down  the  surface.     By  repeating 

the  plowing  or  disking 
several  times,  an  even  mix- 

Figure   217.     Transverse  section  of   telford     turc    may    bc    produCCd.       If 
road  with  macadam  surface.  i       •        i  ^  i   •  <  r 

desired,  a  thin  layer  of 
gravel  may  then  be  placed  on  the  surface.  Only  very 
general  directions  can  be  given,  since  different  materials 
must  be  mixed  in  different  proportions  and  each  mixture 
may  require  special  treatment.     In  many  cases  it  will 


ROADS    AND   BRIDGES 


329 


Cross  Secft'on  Roman .Jioa<f  (Appi'an  iVsy). 


Cros*  Ste^/on  French  Road  (/foman  mei/ioct) 
crey/ous  io  /TZS. 


Cross  Sect/on  of  Tresauguet road,  /77Jt. 


Cross  Sec/  on  T /ford road,  /ezo 


Xross  Sechon  macadam  road,  /6t6, 


Cross- Sec  f /on  of  modern  macadam  fil/assac/iuse/AsJ  roa<f 
M/r'tfi  \f shaped  ioundaf/an: 


MAufifce  o.ei.o/fioae.a 
Cross  SecT/'on  or  modern  macacfa/rv  road. 

Figure  218.     Several  forms  of  stone  roads,  showing  historical  types.  Pre- 
pared by  Maurice  0.  Eldridge. 


330  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

be  wise  to  put  the  surfacing  material  on  in  two  or  three 
general  layers,  thoroughly  mixing  and  smoothing  the 
first  before  adding  the  next. 

The  roller  is  a  very  important  machine  for  compact- 
ing the  roadway  and  its  .use  can  hardly  be  overestimated 

in  road  construction.  It 
should  be  used  after  the 
mixing  and  smoothing  is 
completed,      both      on      the 

Figure  219.    Macadam  road  on  one  side  ,  -  , 

of  the   center  of  the   grade   and   an   earth    UODer       layer       and       OU       the 
track  on  the  other  side.  i  t  -r^        • 

layers  beneath.  Durmg  the 
progress  of  the  work,  any  large  stones  which  happen  to 
be  in  the  gravel  or  clay  should  be  carefully  removed  or 
broken  up. 

MACADAM  STONE  ROADS 

In  preparing  the  bed  for  a  macadam  road,  a  strip,  lo 
feet  or  more  in  width,  at  the  center  or  at  the  side  of  the 
center  of  the  crown  should  first  be  prepared.  This  can 
be  done  in  soils  free  from  stone  by  using  the  reversible 
road  machine,  drawing  some  earth  out  of  the  proposed 
roadway  and  leaving  a  slight  embankment  against  which 
to  place  the  stone  at  either  side,  as  shov/n  in  Figure  211. 

Crushed  rock  for  macadam  roads. — The  granite,  trap 
rock,  limestone,  sandstone  or  other  hard  stone  used  for 
the  lower  portion  of  the  macadam  roadway  should  be 
in  pieces  from  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter.  Where  softer 
rock,  as  limestone,  can  be  more  cheaply  secured  it  may 
be  used  for  the  lower  courses,  using  trap  rock  or  other 
better-wearing  rock  for  the  surface.  In  some  cases 
harder  and  softer  rocks  may  be  mixed,  though  this  must 
be  done  with  the  greatest  care,  to  prevent  uneven  wear- 
ing. If  the  stone  is  to  be  laid  12  inches  deep,  crushed 
stone  of  this  size  can  be  used  for  the  lower  8  or  9  inches. 
The  next  layer  of  2  to  3  inches  should  be  of  stone  about 
half  the  diameter  mentioned.     On  top  of  this  should  be 


ROADS  AND   BRIDGES 


331 


laid  broken  stone  not  more  than  i  inch  in  diameter,  and 
into  it  should  be  worked  the  ftne  particles  and  dust  from 
the  crusher.  Sand  or  broken  limestone  may  also  serve 
as  binding  materials  and  be  worked  into  the  surface. 

After  placing  the  first  layer  of  coarse  rock  it  should 
be  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller.  A  steam  roller 
is  preferred.  Rather  than  roll  the  road  with  too  heavy 
a   roller,    it   should   be    gone   over   many   times   with   a 


r 

J 

Hl^. 

< 

1^ 

i 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hk 

^ 

P 

1 

1 

Figure  220.    Laying  lower  course  of  a  telford  road. 


machine  of  medium  weight.  The  object  is  not  so  much 
to  embed  the  stones  into  the  underlying  clay,  as  to 
work  them  about  so  that  each  stone  finds  the  smallest 
place  into  which  it  will  fit.  Rock  which,  when  crushed 
between  the  jaws  of  a  rock  crusher,  breaks  into  angular 
forms,  nearly  cubical,  may  thus  be  kneaded  together 
into  a  harder  crust  than  rocks  which  crumble  up  or  do 
not  have  sharp,  hard  edges,  and  rough  surfaces. 


J32  FARM  DEVELOPMENT 

The  selection  of  materials  for  macadam  roads.* — No  one  rock  can 
be  said  to  be  a  universally  excellent  road  material.  The  climatic 
conditions  varj'-  so  much  in  different  localities,  and  the  volume 
and  character  of  traffic  vary  so  much  on  different  roads,  that  the 
properties  necessary  to  meet  all  the  requirements  can  be  found 
in  no  one  rock.  If  the  best  macadam  road  be  desired,  that  material 
should  be  selected  which  best  meets  the  conditions  of  the  particular 
road  for  which  it  is  intended. 

In  most  cases  the  selection  of  a  material  for  road  making  is  deter- 
mined more  by  its  cheapness  and  convenience  of  location  than 
by  any  physical  properties  it  may  possess.  But  when  we  consider 
the  number  of  roads  all  over  our  country  which  are  bad  from 
neglect  and  from  obsolete  methods  of  maintenance  that  would  be 
much  improved  by  the  use  of  any  rock,  this  regard  for  economy 
is  not  to  be  entirely  deprecated.  At  the  same  time,  as  a  careless 
selection  leads  to  costly  and  inferior  results,  too  much  care  can- 
not be  used  in  selecting  the  proper  material  when  good  roads  are 
desired  at  the  lowest  cost. 

In  selecting  a  road  material  it  is  well  to  consider  the  agencies 
of  destruction  to  roads  that  have  to  be  met.  Among  the  most 
important  are  the  wearing  action  of  wheels  and  horses'  feet,  frost, 
rain,  and  wind.  To  find  materials  which  can  best  withstand  these 
agencies  under  given  conditions  is  the  great  problem  that  con- 
fronts the  road  builder. 

Before  going  further,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  some  of  the 
physical  properties  of  rock  which  are  important  in  road  building, 
for  the  value  of  a  road  material  is  dependent  in  a  large  measure 
on  the  degree  to  which  it  possesses  these  properties.  There  are 
many  such  properties  that  affect  road  building,  but  only  three 
need  be  mentioned  here.  They  are  hardness,  toughness,  and 
cementing  or  binding  power. 

By  hardness  is  meant  the  power  possessed  by  a  rock  to  resist 
the  wearing  action  caused  by  the  abrasion  of  wheels  and  horses' 
feet.  Toughness,  as  understood  by  road  builders,  is  the  adhesion 
between  the  crystal  and  fine  particles  of  a  rock,  which  gives  it 
power  to  resist  fracture  when  subjected  to  the  blows  of  traffic. 
This  important  property,  while  distinct  from  hardness,  is  yet 
intimately  associated  with  it,  and  can  in  a  measure  make  up  for 
a  deficiency  in  hardness.  Hardness,  for  instance,  would  be  the 
resistance  offered  by  a  rock  to  the  grinding  of  an  emery  wheel; 
toughness,  the  resistance  to  fracture  when  struck  with  a  hammer. 
Cementing  or  binding  power,  is  the  property  possessed  by  the  dust 
of  a  rock  to  act  after  wetting  as  a  cement  to  the  coarser  fragments 
composing  the  road,  binding  them  together  and  forming  a  smooth, 
impervious  shell  over  the  surface.  Such  a  shell,  formed  by  a  rock 
of  high  cementing  value,  protects  the  underlying  material  from 
wear  and  acts  as  a  cushion  to  the  blows  from  horses'  feet,  and  al 
the  same  time  resists  the  waste  of  material  caused  by  wind  and 
rain,  and  preserves  the  foundation  by  shedding  the  surface  water. 

♦Extracts  from  a  paper  on  this  subject,  from  the  Yearbook,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, for  1900,  by  Logan  Waller  Page. 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES  333 

Binding  power  is  thus,  probably,  the  most  important  property  to 
be  sought  for  in  a  road-building  rock,  as  its  presence  is  always 
necessary  for  the  best  results.  The  hardness  and  toughness  of 
the  binder  surface  more  than  of  the  rock  itself  represents  the  hard- 
ness and  toughness  of  the  road,  for  if  the  weight  of  traffic  is  suffi- 
cient to  destroy  the  bond  of  cementation  of  the  surface,  the  stones 
below  are  soon  loosened  and  forced  out  of  place.  When  there  is 
an  absence  of  binding  material,  which  often  occurs  when  the  rock 
is  too  hard  for  the  traffic  to  which  it  is  subjected,  the  road  soon 
loosens  or  ravels. 

Experience  shows  that  a  rock  possessing  all  three  of  the  proper- 
ties mentioned  in  a  high  degree  does  not  under  all  conditions  make 
a  good  road  material;  on  the  contrary,  under  certain  conditions 
it  may  be  altogether  unsuitable.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  if 
a  country  road  or  city  parkway,  where  only  a  light  traffic  prevails, 
were  built  of  a  very  hard  and  tough  rock  with  a  high  cementing 
value,  the  cheapest  results  would  not  be  obtained.  Such  a  rock 
would  so  effectively  resist  the  wear  of  a  light  traffic  that  the  amount 
of  fine  dust  worn  off  would  be  carried  away  by  wind  and  rain  faster 
than  it  would  be  supplied  by  wear.  Consequently,  the  binder 
supplied  by  wear  would  be  insufficient,  and  if  not  supplied  from 
some  other  source  the  road  would  soon  go  to  pieces.  The  first 
cost  of  such  a  rock  would  in  most  instances  be  greater  than  that 
of  a  softer  one,  and  the  necessary  repairs  resulting  from  its  use 
would  also  be  very  expensive. 

There  are  some  rocks,  such  as  limestones,  that  are  hygroscopic, 
or  possess  the  power  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  and  in 
dry  climates  such  rocks  are  distinctly  valuable,  as  the  cementation 
of  rock  dust  is  in  a  large  measure  dependent  for  its  full  develop- 
ment on  the  presence  of  water.  The  degree  to  which  a  rock 
absorbs  water  may  also  be  important,  for  in  cold  climates  this  to 
some  extent  determines  the  liability  of  a  rock  to  fracture  by  freez- 
ing. It  is  not  so  important,  however,  as  the  absorptive  power 
of  the  road  itself,  for  if  a  road  holds  much  water  the  destruction 
wrought  by  frost  is  very  great.  This  trouble  is  generally  due  to 
faulty  construction  rather  than  to  the  material.  The  density  or 
weight  of  a  rock  is  also  considered  of  importance,  as  the  heavier 
the  rock  the  better  it  stays  in  place  and  the  better  it  resists  the 
action  of  wind  and  rain. 

Rocks  belonging  to  the  same  species  and  having  the  same  name, 
such  as  traps,  granites,  quartzites,  etc.,  vary  almost  as  much  in 
different  localities  in  their  physical  road-building  properties  as  they 
do  from  rocks  of  distinct  species.  This  variation  is  also  true  of 
the  mineral  composition  of  rocks  of  the  same  species,  as  well  as 
in  the  size  and  arrangement  of  their  crystals.  It  is  impossible, 
therefore,  to  classify  rocks  for  road  building  by  simply  giving 
their  specific  names.  It  can  be  said,  however,  that  certain  species 
of  rock  possess  in  common  some  road-building  properties.  For 
instance,  the  trap  rocks  as  a  class  are  hard  and  tough  and  usually 
have  binding  power,  and  consequently  stand  heavy  traffic  well; 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  best  rocks 


334  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

for  road  building.  This,  however,  is  not  always  true,  for  numerous 
examples  can  be  shown  where  trap  rock  having  the  above  proper- 
ties in  the  highest  degree  has  failed  to  give  good  results  on  light 
traffic  roads.  The  reason  trap  rock  has  gained  so  much  favor  with 
road  builders  is  because  a  large  majority  of  macadam  roads  in 
our  country  are  built  to  stand  an  urban  traffic,  and  the  traps  stand 
such  a  traffic  better  than  any  other  single  class  of  rocks.  There 
are,  however,  other  rocks  that  will  stand  an  urban  traffic  perfectly 
well,  and  there  are  traps  that  are  not  sufficiently  hard  and  tough 
for  a  suburban  or  highway  traffic.  The  granites  are  generally 
brittle,  and  many  of  them  do  not  bind  well,  but  there  are  a  great 
many. which  when  used  under  proper  conditions  make  excellent 
roads.  The  felsites  are  usually  very  hard  and  brittle,  and  many 
have  excellent  binding  power,  some  varieties  being  suitable  for 
the  heaviest  macadam  traffic.  Limestones  generally  bind  well,  are 
soft,  and  frequently  hygroscopic.  Quartzites  are  almost  always 
very  hard,  brittle,  and  have  very  low  binding  power.  The  slates 
are  usually  soft,  brittle  and  lack  binding  power. 

There  are  but  two  ways  in  which  the  value  of  a  rock  as  a  road 
material  can  be  accurately  determined.  One  way,  and  beyond 
all  doubt  the  surest,  is  to  build  sample  roads  of  all  the  rocks 
available  in  a  locality,  to  measure  the  traffic  and  wear  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  and  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  cost  both 
of  construction  and  annual  repairs  for  each.  By  this  method 
actual  results  are  obtained,  but  it  has  grave  and  obvious  disad- 
vantages. It  is  very  costly,  especially  so  when  the  results  are 
negative,  and  it  requires  so  great  a  lapse  of  time  before  results  are 
obtained  that  it  cannot  be  considered  a  practical  method  when 
macadam  roads  are  first  being  built  in  a  locality.  Further  than 
this,  results  thus  obtained  are  not  applicable  to  other  roads  and 
materials.  Such  a  method,  while  excellent  in  its  results,  can  only 
be  adopted  by  communities  which  can  afford  the  necessary  time 
and  money,  and  is  entirely  inadequate  for  general  use. 

The  other  method  is  to  make  laboratory  tests  of  the  physical 
properties  of  available  rocks  in  a  locality,  study  the  conditions 
obtaining  on  the  particular  road  that  is  to  be  built  and  then  select 
the  material  that  best  suits  the  conditions.  This  method  has  the 
advantages  of  giving  speedy  results  and  of  being  inexpensive,  and 
as  far  as  the  results  of  laboratory  tests  have  been  compared  with 
the  results  of  actual  practice  they  have  been  fotmd  in  the  majority 
of  cases  to  agree. 

These  tests  can  be  made  without  expense  to  local  authorities, 
as  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
maintains  at  Washington  a  complete  laboratory  in  which  is  tested, 
free  of  charge,  all  samples  of  road  materials  submitted  by  any 
officer  in  charge  of  public  road  construction  in  the  United  States. 

Placing  the  layers  of  macadam  roadway. — The  second 
layer    of    macadam    is    placed    on    the    well-rolled    first 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


335 


layer,  and  it  In  turn  is  thoroughly  rolled.  When 
sprinkled  on  the  rock  during  the  rolling  process 
helps  to  slide  the  surfaces  into  firm,  locked  positions. 
When  this  second  layer  has  been  rolled  many  times,  the 
third  layer  is  applied  and  the  fine  binding  material  is 
gradually  added  as  the  roller,  by  repeated  application 
to  the  particles  of  stone,  crushes  and  works  them  into 
position.  After  adding  the  fine  binding  materials,  the 
application  of  water  to  assist  the  roller  in  hardening  the 
surface  is  of  special  importance.  The  choice  of  rock 
for  the  surface  stone  is 
very  important.  It 
should  be  both  hard  and 
capable  of  cementing.  In 
some  cases,  some  tougher     ^.       „„,     ,  ,         ,         ,    „ 

^    ,             '                            "^  Figure    221.     A,    crown    of    macadam    road;    B, 

crrpnifir*     and     trar»     TOCk^  outer  edge  of  stone  surface;  C-K,  level  on  straight 

^idium.     ctinj     Lictp     i»^»^JVo  edge  in  position  to  compare  A  with  level  on  guide 

nort    Ka    mivArl    AxritVi    limP-  stake;    O-M,    straight    edge    in     position     to    test 

can    DC   mixeu    Wlia    IIIIIC  jg^^j  ^^  ^^^^j.  ^^g^  ^^  g^^ne  surface. 

stone,  so  that  the  latter 

may  help  cement  the  tougher  stones  which  better  en- 
dure the  wear  of  travel. 

To  secure  the  proper  depth  of  each  of  the  three  layers, 
stakes  are  placed  at  either  side  of  the  line  of  the  road,  on 

which  are  marked  the 
height  of  the  crown  and 
also  the  height  of  each  of 
the  layers.  By  occasionally 
measuring  across  from 
these  heights,  the  desired 
height  can  be  secured  at  all 
points.  Figure  221  shows 
how  these  measures  may 
be  taken  by  means  of  a  straight  edge  and  mason's  level. 
The  telescope  leveling  instrument  with  measuring  rod 
may  also  be  used  where  great  accuracy  is  desired. 

Macadam  roadways  must  be  built  sufficiently  thick  so 
that  the  wheels  will  not  break  down  the  stone  or  punch 


Figure  222.  Cross-section  of  a  rock  crusher 
showing  the  stationary  jaw,  X,  and  the  oscil- 
lating jaw,  K,  with  rock  between. 


33^ 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


them  into  the  soil  beneath.  Seven  to  9  inches  is  as  thin 
as  it  is  usually  practicable  to  make  these  roads,  and 
for  much  heavy  travel  12  or  more  inches  is  necessary. 

Telford  roads. — Where  stone  roads  are  placed  on 
spongy  ground,  they  are  sometimes  broken  by  being 
crushed  down  into  the  soft  earth  beneath.  The  telford 
road  was  designed  to  better  suit  this  condition.  As 
shown  in  Figures  215,  216  and  217,  the  first  layer  is  made 
up  of  stones  6  to  12  inches  thick,  laid  with  their  broad 


Figure  223.  Rock  crusher  with  elevator  and  "screen.  The  man-size  rocks  are  placed 
In  the  hopper,  and  as  tliey  are  broken  the  crushed  rocks  fall  into  the  cups  and  are  carried 
up  to  the  cylindrical  revolving  screen.  The  finer  particles  fall  through  tlie  smaller  holes, 
the  medium  sized  crushed  stones  fall  through  the  larger  boles  and  the  larger  stones  run  out 
at  the  end  of  the  cylinder. 

surfaces  on  the  bottom  and  their  narrow  edges  toward 
the  top.  These  stones  must  be  placed  by  hand.  Be- 
tween these  stones  is  placed  crushed  rock,  similar  to  that 
comprising  the  lower  layer  in  macadam  roads,  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  make  a  covering  several  inches  thick. 
The  next  layer  and  the  top  layer  of  fine  materials  are 
placed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  macadam  roads.  For 
a  given  amount  of  material  used,  there  is  little  advan- 


ROADS    AND   BRIDGES 


337 


tage  in  this  method.  In  no  case  should  the  upper 
surface  of  the  larger  rocks  be  near  the  surface.  They 
should  be  covered  with  several  inches  of  finely  crushed 
stone.  Particles  of  stone  lying  on  top  of  a  hard  rock 
and  struck  with  the  tire  of  a  wagon  are  subjected  to  a 
sudden  blow,  as  the  hammer  strikes  a  walnut  laid  on  an 
anvil.  For  this  reason 
rock  at  this  point  may 
become  crushed  and 
result  in  forming  a  rut. 
Rock  crushers. — In 
Figures  222  to  225,  in- 
clusive, are  shown  rock 
crushers.  Where  the 
rock   is   to   be   used   in 

large       quantities,        a         Figure  224.     cross  secUonal  view  of  a  semi-sta- 

1    .  1        i.         1  11  tlonary    rock-crushing    plant.        Wagons    are    driven 

crushing     plant     ShOUla  under    tlie    four    compartments,     and    the    crushed 

.  ...        -  11  stone  runs  into  the  wagon  box. 

be  so  devisea  ana  de- 
veloped that  comparatively  little  manual  work  is  neces- 
sary.    The    rock   can    be   loosened    from   the    ledge   by 
means   of   the    drill    and   blast   and    sometimes    further 
broken    by    hand,    and    then    placed    in    wheelbarrows 

run  on  cables,  or  on 
dump  cars,  and  thus 
carried  to  the  crusher 
by  power  machinery. 
Some  hand  work  is 
necessary  to  feed  the 
crusher.  The  crusher, 
propelled  by  a  power- 
ful engine,  breaks  the 
stone  between  hard 
steel  plates.  The 
broken    particles    of 

Figure  225.    Stone-crushing  plant  in  operation.  ,  r    11      •     .l  1 

Stone   fall   into  an   ele- 
vator and  are  carried  to  a  revolving  screen.     The  finest 


338  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

particles  fall  out  through  small  holes  near  the  end  of  the 
revolving  screen  next  to  the  crusher,  and  the  medium- 
sized  particles  fall  from  a  screen  with  larger  holes,  while 
the  largest  particles  (to  be  used  in  the  bottom  of  the 
macadam  road)  pass  the  largest  openings,  and  run  out 
from  the  lower  end  of  the  screen.  These  are  called 
''tailings. "  Tailings  are  frequently  run  through  the 
crusher  again.  The  bin  under  each  portion  of  the  screen 
catches  the  material  as  assorted  in  the  three  sizes.  From 
the  bins  the  large,  the  medium-sized  and  the  finely 
crushed  rock  are  taken  by  team,  preferably  in  specially 
constructed  distributing  carts,  and  put  upon  the  road,  or 
if  the  road  is  at  some  distance  from  the  crusher,  they  are 
transported  in  flat  cars  or  in  boats  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
road.  It  is  here  placed  in  carts  or  wagons  and  carted 
to  the  roadway  and  laid  as  above  described. 

Revolving  screen  and  dust  jacket. — For  small,  portable  plants 
ordinarily  used  in  country  road  work,  a  revolving  cylindrical  screen 
is  used.  It  is  about  8  to  10  feet  long  and  24  to  30  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  is  usually  divided  into  three  sections  of  equal  length. 
When  the  harder  and  tougher  rocks  are  to  be  crushed,  the  first 
section  is  punched  with  holes  about  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the 
second  about  If  inches  in  diameter,  while  the  third  section  is 
punched  with  holes  about  2f  inches  in  diameter.  Where  lime- 
stone and  softer  varieties  of  rock  are  used,  the  screen  is  punched 
with  holes  about  as  follows:  First  section,  1  inch  in  diameter; 
second  section,  2  inches,  and  third  section,  3  inches.  The  latter 
screen  separates  the  rocks  into  sizes  about  as  follows:  f  inch  down 
to  dust,  from  the  first  section;  f  to  1^  inches  from  the  second  sec- 
tion; and  li  to  2^  inches  from  the  third  section.  For  traps  and 
other  harder  and  tougher  rocks,  the  screen,  being  provided  with 
the  smaller  holes  indicated  above,  separates  the  rocks  into  sizes 
about  as  follows:  ^  inch  down  to  dust  from  the  first  section;  i  to 
l\  inches  from  the  second  section;  and  1^  to  2^  inches  from  the 
third  section.  The  softer  rocks  are  crushed  and  separated  into 
the  larger  sizes  for  the  reason  that  they  will  wear  better  not  being 
so  easily  broken  or  crushed  by  the  traffic.  The  harder  and  tougher 
rocks  have  to  be  crushed  smaller,  otherwise  they  will  not  bind 
or  form  a  solid,  compact  mass.  In  the  higher  classes  of  macadam 
work,  a  dust  jacket  is  made  so  as  to  cover  about  three-fourths  of 
the  area  of  the  first  section  of  the  screen.  The  purpose  of  the  dust 
jacket  is  to  separate  the  stone  dust  from  the  screenings  in  order 
that  it  may  be  placed  last  on  the  top  course  so  as  to  be  used  as  a 
binder  for  the  screenings.     If  the  dust  is  not  separated  from  tho 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  339 

screenings  most  of  it  will  sift  to  the  bottom  of  the  first  course  as 
soon  as  the  screenings  are  spread,  and  its  value  as  a  binding 
material  will  be  partially  lost. 

Cost  of  crushed  rock. — In  large  quantities  trap  rock 
could  be  placed  on  cars  or  boats  at  such  shipping  points 
as  Taylors  Falls  or  Duluth,  Minn.,  at  a  very  low  price 
per  cubic  yard,  as  could  also  granite  at  St.  Cloud,  Minn. 
Large  contracts  have  been  filled  at  the  Palisades,  New 
York,  at  a  very  low  price  per  ton.  Trap  rock  can  be 
carried  by  boat  from 
Duluth  to  Chicago  or  Buf- 
falo, sometimes  as  ballast, 
at  a  small  price  per  ton. 
For  each  mile  of  macadam 
road,  12  feet  wide  and  lo 
inches    deep,    about    2,000 

rnKif  irorrlc  of  rnrV  arp  Figure  226.  Reversible  road  rollers  to  be 
CUUIL      yd.1  Ut»      Ui       1  UCK.      dl  C    ^j.^^^  ijy  iioises.  built  to  weigh  2  to  6  tons. 

needed.      If    the    lower    7 

inches  are  of  limestone  and  the  upper  3  inches  of  trap 
rock,  1,400  cubic  yards  of  limestone  and  600  cubic 
yards  of  trap  rock  are  required.  At  common  prices  for 
freight  these  amounts  make  the  use  of  stone  roads 
impossible  except  in  occasional  much-used  roads  where 
the  people  have  the  means  for  the  large  expenditure 
required. 

Quantities  of  crushed  rock  required  for  dififerent  widths  and 
depths. — The  following  table,  which  is  quoted  from  the  Report 
of  the  State  Commissioner  of  Public  Roads  of  New  Jersey,  approx- 
imates the  number  of  tons  of  rolled  stone  required  to  construct 
a  mile  of  road  of  the  various  widths  and  depths.  The  New  Jersey 
Commissioner  says  in  explanation  of  the  table: 

"The  basis  is  3,000  tons  of  loose  stone  or  3,500  tons  of  com- 
pressed stone  for  a  road  one  mile  long,  16  feet  wide  and  8  inches 
deep.  A  road  8  inches  deep,  when  finished,  will  have  required  at 
least  10  inches  of  stone.  It  should  be  placed  in  two  layers  of  5 
inches  each,  and  each  layer  rolled  down  to  4  inches.  Then  the 
application  of  the  f  inch  and  screenings  will  bring  the  road  to  the 
prescribed  depth;  for  other  thicknesses  the  stone  should  be  placed 
m  proportion  to  the  intended  finished  depths." 


340  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

Quantities   of  crushed  rocks  for  different  widths  and  depths  of  roads 

Tons  of 

Width  in  feet     Depth  in  inches  stone  per  mile 

8  4                   will  require  875 

8  6  "  1,312 

8  8  "  1,750 

8  10  "  2,187 

8  12  "  2,625 

9  4  "  984 
9  6  "  1,476 
9  8  "  1,968 
9  10  **  2,460 
9  12  "  2,953 

10  4  "  1,093 

10  6  '•  1,640 

10  8  ♦•  2,187 

10  10  "  2,734 

10  12  "  3,281 

11  4  "  1,203 
11  6  ^  '•  1,804 
11  8  "  2,406 
11  10  "  3,007 

11  12  "  3,609 

12  4  "  1,312 
12  6  "  1,968 
12  8  "  2,625 
12  10  "  3,281 

12  12  "  3,937 

13  4  "  1,421 
13  6  "  2,132 
13  8  "  2,843 

13  10  ■  »     •  3  554 

.   13  12  "  4,265 

14  4  "  1,531 
14  6  *•  2,296 
14  8  •*  3,062 
14  10            "  3,828 

14  12            "  4,593 

15  4  "  1,640 
IS  6  '•  2,460 
15  8  '•  3,281 
15  10            "  4.101 

15  12            ".  4,921 

16  4  "  1,750 
16  6  "  2,625 
16  8  •*  3,500 
16  10  "  4,375 
16  12           V  5,250 


18 

6 

18 

8 

18 

10 

18 

12 

19 

4 

19 

6 

19 

8 

19 

10 

19 

12 

20 

4 

20 

6 

20 

8 

20 

10 

20 

12 

ROADS    AND    BRIDGES  341 

Quantities  of  crushed  rocks  for  different  widths  and  depths  of  roads — 

Continued 

Tons  of 
Width  in  feet     Depth  in  inches  stone  per  mile 

17  4  will  require  1,859 

17  6  "  .  2,789 

17  8  "  3,718 

17  10  "  4,648 

17  12  "  5,578 

1,968 
2,953 
3,937 
4,921 
5,906 
2,078 
3,117 
4,156 
5,195 
6,234 
2,187 
3,281 
4,375 
5,468 
6,562 

Under  some  conditions  hard  roads  can  best  be  made 
of  paving  bricks,  granite  blocks,  cement  blocks,  flat  rocks, 
or  cobblestones,  and  under  other  conditions  even  iron 
wagon  tracks  may  be  used. 

The  discovery  of  immense  quantities  of  easily  mined 
iron,  the  improvements  in  iron  smelting  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  plates,  together  with  the  cheapened 
transportation,  have  brought  iron  rails  almost  within 
the  possibility  of  large  use  in  road  making.  It  is  not 
likely,  however,  that  they  will  come  into  prominent  use  for 
roadways,  except  possibly  across  much-traveled  bridges, 
where  they  will  receive  and  endure  the  wear  which  would 
cause  boards  or  asphalt  to  be  so  rapidly  worn  out  as  to 
be  more  expensive  than  the  steel  tracks.  One  thing 
in  favor  of  steel  tracks  on  roads  very  much  traveled  is 
the  saving  on  draft  on  teams;  there  being  very  little 
friction,  the  force  required  to  draw  the  load  is  very  light. 

The  following  table,  according  to  Prof.  King,  shows 


342 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


the  amount  of  power  in  pounds  required  to  draw  a  load 
on  an  ordinary  farm  wagon,  on  a  level  road  made  of  each 
of  the  following  materials  other  than  iron : 

On  cubical  block  pavement,  28  to  44  lbs.  per  ton. 

On  macadam  road,  55  to  dy  lbs.  per  ton. 

On  gravel  road,  75  to  140  lbs.  per  ton. 

On  plank  road,  25  to  44  lbs.  per  ton. 

On  common  dirt  road,  75  to  224  lbs.  per  ton. 

REPAIR  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS 

Repairing    common    roads. — Much    is    gained    in    the 
building  of  roads  if  the  surface  is  made  uniform  through 


Figure    227.     Steam   road   roller. 


long  sections,  that  the  same  method  of  repairing  may  be 
followed  throughout.  While  the  most  important  work 
in  road  repairing  is  to  attend  to  the  little  things,  as 
breaks  in  the  surface,  yet  there  is  a  time  Avhen  the 
entire  surface  must  be  systematically  worked  over  with 
machinery,  or  the  entire  surface  be  reconstructed  of  new 
materials.     The    most    extensive    repair    work   is    tliat 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


343 


Arhich  is  needed  to  keep  earth  and  gravel  roads  smooth, 
compacted  and  round,  so  that  the  water  will  run  off  into 
the  side  ditches  and  the  surface  be  kept  hard.  Much  of 
this  work  can  be  done  by  the  reversible  machine,  in  some 
cases  followed  by  the  road  roller. 

By  going  over  the  dirt  or  gravel  road  two  or  more 
times  annually  an  experienced  man  can  keep  the  center 
of  the  roadway  free  from  ruts  and  so  rounded  as  to  be 


Figure  228.    Steam  road  roller. 

dry  and  smooth  except  in  times  of  excessive  rainfall. 
There  is  no  portion  of  our  road  work  more  neglected 
than  that  of  repairing.  By  looking  after  the  roads  when 
they  are  drying  out  just  after  the  spring  rains,  the  sur- 
face can  be  formed  up  so  as  to  last  during  the  drier  part 
of  the  summer.  In  the  drier  portions  of  the  west, 
smoothing  up  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  season 
will  often  be  sufficient  for  the  entire  year,  while  in  sec- 
tions of  greater  rainfall,  together  with  more  travel,  the 
road  machine  should  dress  the  roadway  up  two  or  three 


344  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

times  annually,  unless,  with  the  king  road  machine,  this 
is  done  after  each  rain,  making  the  use  of  the  reversible 
machine  unnecessary. 

The  split-log  drag. — Next  in  importance  to  the  revers- 
ible road  machine,  and  possibly,  in  the  aggregate,  more 
important,  is  the  drag  made  of  the  tv^o  parts  of  a  split 
.log.     Like  a  spade,  it  is  a  very  simple  implement.     Figures 

234  and  235  show  how  it  is 
constructed.  A  log  10  or  12 
inches  in  diameter  and  7  to 
9  feet  long  is  split  and  fas- 
Figure  229.  Road  with  track  9  feet  wide  tCUCd  tOgfCther  aS  shown. 
one  side  of  the  center  laid  with  brick.   Below  "  . 

the  brick  there  must  be  a  layer  of  gravel  or     The   tCam    IS   hltchcd   tO   the 


other   solid    material    several    Inches    deep, 
when  wet  bricks  are  ci 
by  the  wheels  of  heavy 


when  wet  bricks  are  crushed  into  a  clay  bed    phain     nnp     «;iHf     thf     ppntfr 
sels  of  heavy  vehicles.  CUdlll     UIIC     JMUC     Llie     CCntCr 


and  the  drag  is  drawn  at 
an  angle.  The  driver  stands  on  the  machine,  and  by 
driving  up  one  side  and  down  the  other,  he  shoves  the 
dirt  toward  the  center,  if  that  is  needed ;  he  scrapes  down 
high  points  and  fills  up  ruts,  and  both  smooths  and  com- 
pacts the  surface.  The 
work  is  begun  early  in  the 
spring  and  is  done  when 
the    clods    of   the    dirt   are 

.  .  Figure  230.     Roadway  covered  „   ™   -_  

hardeninP"  after  rains,  when  ^^^^  "^^^^  granite  blocks,  very  hard  sandstone 

c>                                  '  or    blocks    made    of    sand    and   cement,    about 

frairpl     Viae     rt-\ctr\(^     fhf^     cur-  4  x  6  x  12  inches,   with  6  x  12-inch  surface 

travel     nas     maae     tne     SUr  ^  laj^  on  a  layer  of  gravel  or  sand. 

face    rough,    and    at    such 

times  as  teams  can  best  be  spared  for  this  work.  The 
road  will  thus  be  kept  relatively  smooth  throughout  the 
year,  and  will  become  better  compacted  from  year  to 
year.  This  device  will  serve  on  many  gravel  roads  quite 
as  well  as  on  earth  roads.  This  repair  work  should  be 
done  at  public  expense.  Each  section  of  road  can  be  ar- 
ranged for  under  a  contract  with  a  farmer.  The  road 
officer  can  call  the  contractors  out  by  telephone  or  post- 
card, thus  making  repairs  when  most  profitable. 
Wide-tire  wagons  are  recognized  by  the  laws  in  some 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


345 


States  as  being  useful  in  helping  to  pack  the  roadway 
and  keep  the  surface  in  a  smooth,  hard  condition.  The  pub- 
lic can  well  afford  to  exempt  such  wagons  from  taxation. 

Repairing  macadam  and  telford  roads. — Here  "a  stitch 
in  time  saves  nine"  is  even  more  applicable  than  in  the 
maintenance  of  earth  roads.  The  great  advantage  in 
these  roads  lies  in  the  hard,  smooth  surface,  which  should 
become  still  harder  and  smoother  as  a  result  of  the  wear 
of  travel.  If  slight  depressions  are  at  once  filled  with 
crushed  rock  similar  to  that  forming  the  surface  of  the 
road,  these  places  will  soon  be  worn  smooth  and  uni- 
form with  the  other  por- 
tions of  the  track.  If,  how- 
ever, ruts  are  allowed  to 
remain,  each  passing  wheel 
drops  into  the  rut,  grind- 
ing to  powder  more  and 
more  of  the  rock,  and  the  deeper  it  cuts  the  more  forcible 
the  blow  of  the  next  wheel.  Where  the  rut  has  become 
deeper  and  much  of  the  material  has  been  ground  to 
powder,  the  dust  should  be  taken  out  before  filling  with 
crushed  rock. 

The  raveling  or  loosening  of  stones  from  the  surface 
of  the  stone  road,  to  be  kicked  about  by  passing  teams, 
requires  attention,  and  ofttimes  the  road  roller  must  be 
again  applied  to  make  the  surface  more  firm.-    Stones 


Figure  231.  Roadway  paved  with  flat  rocks, 
preferably  supported,  if  on  a  clay  roadbed, 
witti  a  layer  of  some  inches  of  gravel  or  sand. 


Figure  232.    Roadway  paved  with  cobblesto  nes  laid  on  gravel  makes  a  very  rough,  but 
very  durable,  hard  roadway. 

thus  loosened  should  be  removed  from  the  surface,  lest 
wheels  striking  them  cause  them  to  .disturb  the  roadbed. 
Expensive  roads  should  be  patrolled  at  regular  inter- 
vals by  a  laborer  who  understands  the  keeping  of  the 
road  in  repair.     By  having  a  contract  with  some  resident 


34^ 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


farmer  or  laborer,  this  work  can  usually  be  done  in  wet 
times  when  other  work  is  not  pressing,  and  at  slight  cost 
to  the  community. 

A  badly  worn  stone  road  needs  its  surface  recon- 
structed.— In  Figure  236  is  shown  a  road  roller  in  the 
act  of  tearing  up  a  macadam  roadway.  Spikes  are 
placed  in  the  roller  wheels  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
weight  of  the  machine  causes  them  to  sink  into  the 
hard  crust,  thoroughly  crumbling  it.     In  some  cases  it 


Figure  233.     View  of  steel  rails  laid  for  wagon  road. 


is  unnecessary  to  procure  new  material  for  the  addition 
of  a  layer  of  surfacing,  but  the  old  surface  layer  may 
be  thoroughly  worked  over  by  using  the  spiked  roller  to 
break  it  up,  the  common  harrow  to  complete  the  mixing, 
and  the  roller  to  again  thoroughly  compact  and  harden 
the  surface.  In  case  of  badly  worn  roads  it  will  be  found 
necessary  to  add  a  new  layer  a  few  inches  deep,  this  to 
be  placed  on  top  of  the  surface  of  the  old  material  after 
it  has  been  thoroughly  reworked  and  compacted. 

Snow  roads. — In  the  Northern  states,  where  there  is  a 
heavy  fall  of  snow,  the  problem  of  making  snow  roads 


ROADS   AND   BRIDGES 


347 


on  the  right  of  way,  also  through  adjacent  fields,  becomes 
an  important  part  of  the  year's  road  work.  Where  the 
wind  makes  hard  drifts,  it  is  often  necessary  to  shovel 
out  the  roads  with  hand  shovels.  Deep  level  snow  can 
be  shoved  to  the  sides  and  a  nice  track  left  by  a  device 
made  of  two  planks  fastened  together  in  V-shape,  and  a 
cross  plank  to  hold  the  wings  apart.  Uneven  tracks, 
full  of  what  in  New  England  are  called  "  thank-you- 
ma'ams,"  may  be  smoothed  easily  by  using  the  reversible 
road  machine  or  a  device  especially  constructed  to  tear 
off  the  high  places  and  fill  in  the  low  ones.  Better  than 
either  of  these  methods,  however,  is  the  use  of  the  snow 
roller.  In  many  of  the  New 
England  states  where  the 
snowfall  is  very  heavy  the 
roads  are  rolled  and  packed 
after  every  storm  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  clear  a 
path  by  plowing.  These 
rollers  are  pushed  over  the 
roads  by  a  number  of  teams  just  as  the  header  is  pushed 
through  the  grain  field. 

Bicycle  paths. — The  popularity  of  the  bicycle  as  a  social 
fad  has  passed  away;  but  as  a  vehicle  for  practical  use 

it  will  continue  to 
be  an  important 
means  of  convey- 
ance in  many 
localities.  Bicycle 
paths  will  not 
be  made  in  most 
roadways ;  hence, 
where  practicable, 
so  constructed  of  hard 
a   good  bicycle   path ;    but 


The  split  log  drag. 


Figure  235.     King  drag  with  steel  edges  bolted  on  the  split  logs. 


the    wagon    road    should    be 

materials   that   it  will   make 

since  this  is  at  present  generally  impracticable,  special 


348 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


paths  may  be  made  for  bicycles  along  many  roads.  They 
may  be  placed  between  the  ditch  and  the  wagon  track 
on  wide  grades,  or  on  the  bank  between  the  ditch  and 
the  fence.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  and 
fill  so  as  to  avoid  excessive  grades.  However,  since 
these  paths  must  be  made  cheaply  and  bicycle  riders 
can  walk  up  an  occasional  steep  place,  or  by  extra  exer- 
tion overcome  steep  places,  it  is  not  practicable  to 
change  the   grades  as   much  as  in   making  a  track  for 

wagons.  The  path  can  be 
constructed  in  a  very  sim- 
ple manner.  In  many  cases 
the  sod  should  be  removed 
and  an  excavation  made  a 
few  inches  deep.  Into  this 
gravel,  or  better,  coal  cin- 
ders, should  be  placed, 
bringing  them  up  even 
with  the  sod.  This  should 
be  thoroughly  packed  by 
rolling  and  on  top   should 

Figure  236.     Steam  road  roller.     Spikes  In  bc   olaccd   fine   gfravcl   whlch 

wheel  used  to  break  up  macadam  surface  that  '^                               ^ 

the  broken  stone  may  be  remixed,  rolled  and  {^     ^Um      should     bc     rollcd, 

resurfaced.  ' 

making  a  fine,  hard  sur- 
face. The  line  of  grade  should  be  evened  up  so  as  to 
avoid  any  sudden  depressions  or  elevations.  In  cross- 
ing roadways,  the  bicycle  path  should  be  constructed 
with  more  care,  making  the  hardened  surface  sufficiently 
deep  and  substantial  so 
that  wagons  will  not  cut 
it  up.  A  sidewalk  or 
bicycle  path  2  feet  wide 
outside  the  ditch  along  a 
country  road  may  be  con- 
structed in  several  ways : 
and  equalizing  rough  places.     (2)   By  excavating  2  to  4 


Figure  237     Sidewalk  and  bicycle  path  be- 
tween road  ditch  and  fence. 


(i)   By   smoothing  the   sod 


ROADS  AND  BRIDGES 


349 


inches  deep  and  filling  with  gravel  or  cinders,  using  fine 
gravel  for  the  surface.  (3)  If  the  soil  is  sandy,  clay 
may  be  mixed  with  the  sand  and  a  thin  layer  of  fine 
gravel  used  on  top.  Placing  this  walk  or  path  on  the 
grade  is  not  usually  practical,  because  teams  will  dis- 
turb it  unless  it  is  protected  by  the  ditch  bank. 

Lumbermen's  ice  roads  are  an  important  feature  of 
modern  lumbering  operations  in  cold  regions.  In  north- 
ern Minnesota,  for  instance,  the  lumbermen  cut  out  a 
road  from  the  woods  where  the  trees  are  felled  to  the 
local  sawmill  or  to  the  lake  or  river  where  the  logs  are 
to  enter  the  water  to  be  floated  to  their  destination,  or 
to  the  side  of  the  railway 
which  is  to  carry  them  to 
the  lumber  mills.  These 
roadways  are  cleared  out 
and  made  fairly  level  before     ..        ..„„.,      ,».        ^^u. 

■'  .  i<'igure  238.    Bicycle  path  or  walk  between 

the    soil    is    frozen,    or    if    not    wheel  track  and  ditch. 

made  until  freezing,  they  are 

leveled  up  by  means  of  snow.  Water  is  then  hauled  in 
large  tanks  and  used  to  sprinkle  the  surface  of  the 
runner  track,  making  it  solid  ice.  These  roads  are  made 
sufficiently   wide    so    that    the    horses    walk    inside    the 

grooves  where  the  sled 
runners  glide  on  smooth 
ice.  By  occasionally  going 
over  these  roads  during  the 
winter  with  the  sprinkling 

Figure  239.      Cross-section  of  a  ford  across     . <        ^     r „p     ^^^^^^.U 

a   creek.      Ordinary   water   levelin   a   stream    taUK,     a    SUriaCC    OI     SmOOtn 


is     maintained 


over 
with 


shown.       The     dotted     lines     represent     ford 

graded    down    and    surfaced    with    stone.      In    ICC 

many    instances    the    bed    of    the    stream    is         ,   .  .  . 

solid   and   the   stone    surfacing    is   necessary    whlCh        thC        horSCS 

only   at  the   outer  edge   of  the  water,    as   at 

R-A  or  x-Y.  sharp  shoes  can  draw  im- 

mense loads  of  logs  at  comparatively  very  small  expense 
per  thousand  feet. 

Fords. — Fords  are  a  necessity  in  pioneer  communities, 
and  often  remain  permanently,  both  in  public  highways 


350  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

and  in  farm  roadways.  There  is  no  place  where  a  little 
intelligent  work  will  count  for  more  than  in  the  proper 
improvement  of  the  roadway  by  improving  the  banks 
of  a  ford  across  a  stream.  At  the  point  where  the  edge 
of  the  water  keeps  the  earth  moist  there  is  nearly  always 
a  mud  hole,  or  at  best  deep  ruts,  through  which  the 
wheels  of  a  wagon  or  buggy  must  pass.  The  necessary 
lift  to  bring  the  wheels  out  of  these  ruts  often  greatly 
limits  the  load  which  can  be  hauled,  for  "  one  link  deter- 
mines the  strength  of  the  chain."  A  hard  stone  surface 
at  this  point,  if  properly  placed,  transfers  the  ford  from 
a  dreaded  place  to  one  which  may  be  passed  in  comfort 
and  safety.  Since  it  is  not  wise  to  build  a  grade  across 
a  stream,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  washed  out,  it  is  necessary 
to  excavate  the  bed  of  the  road  a  foot  or  less,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stream.  This  can  be  filled  in  with  hard  ma- 
terials which  will  hold  up  the  wheels  of  the  passing 
vehicles.  In  many  cases  coarse  gravel  will  answer  very 
well  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  though  broken  stones 
or  even  flat  stones  are  better.  The  excavation  can  be 
made  in  warm  weather  by  men  and  teams  working  in 
the  water.  Where  the  road  leaves  the  water's  edge  the 
banks  should  be  cut  down  so  that  there  is  not  too  steep 
a  grade,  and  the  cut  should  be  made  about  a  foot  lower 
than  the  proposed  finished  grade.  This  also  should 
then  be  filled  with  crushed  rock,  small  stones,  coarse 
gravel,  or  other  material  that  will  not  be  easily  washed 
about  and  will  form  a  perfectly  hard  roadbed.  Since 
fords  are  nearly  always  considered-  temporary  expedi- 
ents, and  often  are  not  on  the  line  of  legally  established 
roadways,  road  officers  do  not  feel  free  to  improve  them 
and  they  are  usually  left  in  a  very  poor  condition.  A 
"  ford  bee,"  where  interested  neighbors  might  spend  a 
summer  day  "  stoning  the  ford,"  might  do  much  good  to 
such  neglected  places.  It  is  an  almost  unwritten  law 
that  public  officers  can  use  some  public  funds,  in  aiding 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  .   35 1 

in  these  special  cases,  where  the  letter  of  the  law  would 
not  allow  the  road  officials  to  take  the  entire  responsibility 
of  the  expense  of  improving  a  roadway  which  has  not 
been  legally  acquired  by  the  public.  These  ford  roads 
should  not  be  too  narrow  and  should  be  properly  marked 
by  means  of  tall  posts  near  the  ends,  so  that  in  times  of 
high  water,  passers  can  avoid  leaving  the  line  of  the 
grade  and  getting  into  the  soft  earth  on  either  side. 

Roadside  weeds,  if  allowed  to  ripen,  are  a  nuisance  to 
the  farm  and  a  nuisance  to  the  public,  and  withal  are 
obnoxious  to  an  otherwise  beautiful  country.  The  pub- 
lic should  encourage  the  farmer  to  keep  the  weeds  down. 
As  to  whether  the  law  should  require  the  farmer  to  keep 
the  roadside  reasonably  free  from  obnoxious  plants,  or 
whether  the  road  officials  should  be  required  to  look 
after  all  roads  systematically  the  care  of  which  is  not 
assumed  by  farmers  in  growing  crops  upon  them,  there 
is  some  question.  As  a  rule,  public  property  should  be 
managed  in  such  an  exemplary  manner  that  a  good 
example  is  set  for  the  citizens,  and  the  road  officials 
should  be  held  responsible  for  keeping  the  roadway  clean 
of  weeds.  While  the  expense  would  seem  considerable, 
systematic  care  of  the  roads  by  public  officials  would 
doubtless  pay.  If  the  public  would  thoroughly  assume 
this  responsibility,  the  roads  could  be  so  constructed 
that  banks  and  grades  could  be  rounded  down,  seeded 
to  grasses  and  then  be  mowed  and  kept  In  neat  condition 
by  the  use  of  machinery.  Since  the  general  advent  of 
wire  fences,  there  Is  far  less  excuse  for  weedy  roadsides 
than  when  the  old-time  zig-zag  rail  fences  were  com- 
mon. The  use  of  the  mowing  machines  and  a  seeding 
of  such  grasses  as  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  Bermuda 
grass  will  give  little  chance  for  weeds. 

Roadside  trees  and  hedges  add  greatly  to  the  beauty 
of  a  country,  and  the  public  should  encourage  land- 
owners to  plant  and  care  for  them.     In  many  instances 


352  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

the  public  could  well  afford  to  have  the  farmers  plant 
a  TOW  of  trees  several  feet  from  the  outer  line  on  the 
road  property,  giving  the  farmer  the  crop  from  the  trees. 

In  some  countries,  as  in  western  Germany,  apples  and 
other  fruit  and  nut  trees,  planted  by  public  officers  along 
the  roadway,  produce  crops  of  fruit  which  are  sold  for 
nearly  enough  to  pay  for  the  maintenance  of  the  road- 
way. This  might  be  a  practical  source  of  income  in 
some  sections  in  the  United  States.  The  crop  of  fruit 
or  nuts  is  usually  sold  by  contract  before  it  is  ripe,  the 
purchaser  harvesting  the  crop.  When  our  lands  become 
much  more  valuable,  it  may  be  possible  for  the  public 
to  rent  the  land  on  the  right  of  way  of  our  broad  high- 
ways to  such  an  advantage  that  the  renter  will  not  only 
keep  the  roadside  in  a  neat  manner,  but  will  also  help  to 
keep  the  road  in  repair.  In  case  of  earth  roads  of  heavy 
clay,  trees. should  not  be  planted  where  they  will  prevent 
the  road  surface  from  drying  or  cause  impassable  drifts 
of  snow  to  form  in  northern  climates. 

Relation  of  farmers  to  the  roads. — The  farmer  has  a 
special  interest  in  the  roads  adjacent  to  and  leading  from 
his  farm.  In  some  cases,  he  can  unite  with  the  officials 
in  building  or  draining  a  road  and  in  making  a  co-opera- 
tive drain  which  will  be  very  useful  to  his  fields.  In  many 
cases  it  is  to  his  interest,  as  well  as  to  the  interest 
of  the  public,  for  the  farmer  to  extend  his  field  operations 
into  the  right  of  way,  always  leaving  sufficient  room  in 
the  center  of  the  highway  for  travel.  If  the  farmer  will 
keep  the  roadside  in  grass  and  mow  it  or  pasture  it,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds,  the  roadway  will 
be  much  improved.  In  some  cases,  where  the  road  be- 
comes very  muddy,  the  grass  border  is  useful  for  pedes- 
trians, for  bicycles  and  even  for  wagons  and  automobiles. 
Traveling  this  roadside  is  not  conducive  to  a  good  crop, 
and  people  should  recognize  the  interest  of  a  man  who 
takes  good  care  of  a  roadside  and  not  unnecessarily  in- 


ROADS   AND    BRIDGES  353 

jure  his  crops.  In  many  sections  of  the  country,  the 
grasses  which  are  grown  do  not  yield  well  for  more  than 
four  or  five  years,  when  it  is  necessary  to  plow  the  land 
and  again  sow  it  to  grasses  and  clovers.  In  this  case, 
the  farmer  finds  it  wise  to  grow  one  or  two  crops  of 
grain  in  rotation  with  the  grass  after  long  intervals,  so 
that  he  may  again  seed  the  grass  down  with  a  crop  of 
grain.  In  many  cases  our  roadways  are  much  wider 
than  necessary  and  common  consent  should  allow  the 
farmer  to  use  the  land  within  a  rod  of  the  center  of  the 
road,  and  in  some  cases  he  should  be  permitted  to  place 
his  fence  nearer  the  center  of  the  roadway. 

Good  roads  education. — There  are  many  agencies  in 
the  United  States  through  which  a  better  knowledge  of 
roads  can  be  disseminated  to  the  people.  The  largest 
single  agency  is  the  national  department  of  agriculture 
with  its  office  of  public  roads,  which  is  doing  much  to 
develop  a  better  sentiment  among  the  people  concern- 
ing the  need  of  good  roads  and  a  better  knowledge  of 
how  to  secure  these  roads  in  the  different  sections  of 
the  country.  The  national  department  is  supplemented 
by  the  experiment  stations  and  colleges  of  engineering 
of  each  state.  Agricultural  high  schools,  where  a  large 
number  of  young  men  who  are  to  become  farmers  at- 
tend, are  well  adapted  to  giving  instruction  in  this  line 
so  far  as  the  farmers'  interests  are  concerned.  To 
schools  of  agricultural  engineering  in  our  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  mechanic  arts,  and  to  general,  engineer- 
ing schools,  however,  we  must  look  for  trained  road 
engineers,  superintendents,  contractors  and  builders. 
Traveling  farmers'  institutes,  county  fairs  and  the  pub- 
lic schools  are  agencies  through  which  much  can  be  done 
to  disseminate  correct  ideas  on  this  subject.  Practical 
road  engineers  are  rapidly  building  up  a  body  of  knowl- 
edge, and  a  literature  which  is  helping  to  place  our 
public  road  service  on  a  permanent  high  basis. 


354  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

Good  roads  literature. — Printed  matter  in  books,  also 
the  agricultural  and  daily  newspapers,  contain  much 
information,  while  bulletins  and  reports  issued  by  the 
general  government,  by  the  state  experiment  stations 
and  by  the  state  highway  commissions  are  being  multi- 
plied and  contain  much  useful  thought  on  the  subject. 

Associations  such  as  national  and  state  good  road 
associations,  county  good  road  societies,  wheelmen's 
and  automobile  clubs,  both  national  and  state,  and  the 
associations  of  manufacturers  of  road  machines  and 
motor  vehicles,  all  help  create  an  intelligent  interest 
in  this  subject  and  help  promote  the  idea  of  building 
good  roads.  As  our  great  country  develops  its  resources 
it  accumulates  vast  wealth  with  which  it  can  make 
permanent  improvements.  Our  highways,  being  per- 
manent in  their  nature,  are  in  part  the  gift  of  one 
generation  to  the  next.  In  many  cases  the  roads  should  be 
built  and  part  of  the  cost  left  to  be  paid  by  future  users ; 
but  it  is  highly  important  that  the  people  at  once  begin 
more  liberal  yearly  expenditures  in  constructing  a  gen- 
eral system  of  good  roads.  The  general  government, 
the  states,  the  counties,  the  cities  and  all  the  people 
should  co-operate  in  this  work.  This  promises  to  be 
one  of  the  problems  in  which  the  whole  people  must 
work  together  in  one  long,  strong  effort.  The  develop- 
ment of  country  life  demands  superior  transportation 
facilities;  with  this  supplied,  country  life  will  continue 
to  develop  in  the  United  States  as  nowhere  else  in 
the  world.  More  and  more  our  annual  increment 
of  wealth  should  be  used  in  making  permanent  improve- 
ments. Good  roads,  substantial  farm  homes,  barns,  rural 
schoolhouses  and  country  churches,  next  to  the  soil  itself, 
are  our  permanent  country  investments.  These  forms  of 
permanent  wealth  are  not  receiving  their  due  attention 
as  compared  with  city  homes,  public  buildings  and  struc- 
tures for  trade  and  commerce. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FENCES 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  cost  of  fenc- 
ing fields  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  discovery  of 
new  fence  materials.  Fences  have  been  devised  which 
are  much  more  durable  and  which  will  better  restrain 
stock  of  all  kinds  than  any  rail,  post,  board  or  hedge 
fences.  The  reduced  price  of  wire  and  the  manifold 
inventions  for  drawing  wire  and  making  it  into  forms 
suitable  for  fences,  have  brought  about  an  iron  age  in 
fence  building.  A  half  century  ago  most  of  the  American 
farms  were  fenced  with  laboriously  made  stone  walls  or 
rail  fences,  the  latter  sometimes  named  worm  fences,  and 
aptly  called  by  foreigners  "  The  Yankee  zig-zag."  Now 
one  can  travel  across  the  continent  without  seeing  a 
newly  made  fence  rail;  and  in  many  places  the  rock 
crusher  is  grinding  up  the  stone  fences  for  material 
with  which  to  macadamize  the  highways.  Iron  wire 
was  one  of  the  great  aids  in  opening  up  the  vast  prairies 
of  the  Mississippi  basin  for  agricultural  purposes ;  it  now 
has  a  very  large  influence  in  promoting  the  live  stock 
and  general  agricultural  interests.  Barbed  wires  were 
invented  at  the  proper  time  to  enable  the  farmers  to 
subdue  the  great  prairies  on  a  scale  of  extensive  farm- 
ing. Smooth-woven  wire  has  now  taken  such  a  prac- 
tical form  and  is  obtainable  at  such  reasonable  prices 
that  more  comprehensive  field  and  farm  management, 
with  live  stock  as  a  leading  feature,  is  being  inaugurated 
as  the  permanent  system  of  management  on  American 
farms.  Nowhere  is  there  such  an  opportunity  for  carry- 
ing out  the  broad  principles  of  scientific  farm  manage- 
ment   as    on    American    farms,    and    nowhere    else    is 


356  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

there  such  a  comprehensive  plan  of  combined  farming 
and  homemaking,  nowhere  else  such  a  great,  rising  race 
of  farmers.  The  wire  fence  stands  with  the  modern  rail- 
way, the  plow,  the  cultivator,  the  reaper  and  the  thresher 
as  a  large  factor  in  promoting  our  extensive  and  pros- 
perous agriculture  and  the  unsurpassed  country  life  of 
our  American  family  farms. 

The  great  variety  of  materials  and  uses,  also  the  vary- 
ing conditions  under  which  fences  are  built,  give  the 
farmer  the  opportunity  to  exercise  considerable  ingenuity 
in  devising  structures  to  best  meet  his  needs.  The  fence 
should  efficiently  do  its  work,  be  easily  kept  in  repair, 
and  economical  of  construction,  enduring  if  may  be, 
good  to  look  upon  or  at  least  not  conspicuously  offensive 
to  the  eye. 


A 

X 

3 

c                                                         f 

eo  RO( 

)5 

ZO    RODS 

♦o* rod's'  '"       ' 

O 

R 

6 

Flgur*  240,    Fence  line  placed  in  the  wrong  place. 

The  first  step  in  building  a  fence  is  to  secure  the  exact 
location  desired  throughout  the  entire  line  of  the  fence. 
Where  practicable,  the  two  points  where  the  fence  is  to 
end  should  be  located  with  care,  and  the  fence  line  laid 
out  on  a  line  between  them.  Thus,  in  Figure  240,  the 
corners  of  the  farm,  A  and  D,  should  be  first  established 
and  the  fence  line  staked  off  in  a  straight  line  between. 
If  first  in  fencing  field  O  a  slight  error  is  made  in  plac- 
ing the  corner  at  B,  and  the  fence  line  thus  established 
is  projected  forward  in  a  straight  line  to  D,  the  error 
will  have  been  multiplied,  placing  one-eighth  of  an  acre 
on  the  wrong  side  of  the  fence. 

If  a  post  and  wire  fence  is  to  be  built  the  planting 
and  bracing  of  corner  and  end  posts  is  a  matter  of  most 
careful  consideration.     If  the  wires,  or  ribbons  of  wires, 


FENCES 


357 


can  be  attached  to  an  unyielding  post  at  the  corner, 
they  do  not  sag,  and  they  serve  to  hold  all  the  other 
posts  in  line.  These  end  posts  need  to  be  planted 
deeply  in  the  ground  and  thoroughly  anchored  by  cross 
pieces  fastened  to  their  bottoms  and  braced,  as  with  a 
rather  long  timber,  lo  to  14  feet,  reaching  some  distance 
along  the  line  of  the  fence,  and  placed  at  not  too  wide 


Figure  241.     Driving  sharpened  fence  posts  with  sledge  and  stand. 

an  angle  with  the  horizontal,  so  as  to  avoid  pulling  the 
corner  posts  out  of  the  ground. 

The  line  posts  for  wire  need  not  be  placed  so  deep  in 
the  ground  nor  set  so  firmly  as  is  necessary  in  the  case 
of  wooden  fences.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case 
of  barbed  wire,  since  animals  do  not  rub  against  the 
wires  so  much  as  against  wooden  fences.     The  winds  do 


358 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


not  blow  wire  fences  down,  and  animals  running  into 
them  do  not  press  against  a  single  post,  but  the  strain  is 
equalized  among  several  along  the  line.  Reel  devices 
are  very  useful  in  distributing  and  rolling  up  a  single 
strand  of  barbed  wire,  and  rolls  of  wire  fence  ribbons. 
Setting  posts. — The  old  art  of  digging  post  holes  with 
a  spade,  setting  the  posts  in  line  and  tamping  the  re- 
turned earth 
solidly  about 
them  is  hard 
work.  But  even 
here  there  is 
opportunity  for 
system  in  cut- 
ting the  sod,  in 
pulverizing  the 
soil  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole, 
and  in  lifting  out 
the  spadefuls  of 
earth.  Some 
men  will  quickly 
dig  a  post  hole 
with  half  the 
— ""'iff  fl'' ton/.""    *  expenditure      of 

Figure  242.    Device  for  pulling  fence  posts  with  the  aid  of  a  team,    energy      reqUireCl 

by  another  who 
has  not  learned  how  to  handle  the  spade  to  the  best 
advantage.  It  is  difficult  to  give  instructions  without  a 
spade  and  a  place  to  make  a  post  hole.  Post-hole  augers 
and  some  other  form  of  implements  for  digging  post 
holes  save  much  labor.  In  many  cases  the  best  way  to 
set  posts  is  to  sharpen  them  with  a  sharp  ax,  dig  the 
holes  one  spade  length  deep  and  then  drive  the  posts 
with  a  heavy  maul  or  sledge.  The  workman  can  stand  in 
the  back  end  of  a  wag"on,  or  better,  on  an  especially  con- 


FENCES 


359 


structed  bench,  and  drive  the  posts  to  a  depth  of  2  or 
2^  feet.  Especially  where  the  fence  is  temporary  is  it 
worth  while  to  sharpen  the  posts  that  they  may  thus 
easily  be  driven  when  set  in  the  new  location.  Where 
the  post  is  not  sharpened  it  is  important  that  the  earth 
be  tamped  very  firmly  about  the  bottom  of  the  post  and 
also  at  the  top  of  the  hole  so  that  it  will  be  held  firmly. 
Pulling  posts  with  a  horse,  chain  and  simple  lever  avoids 
heavy  lifting.  (See  Figure  242.)  With  suitable  tools 
for  withdraw- 
ing or  breaking 
the  staples, 
with  a  handy 
device  for  roll- 
ing up  the 
wires  and  again 
unrolling  them 
along   the   new 

line       rind       -w/itVi       Figure  243.     Woven  wire  fence  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swme. 

good  wire  stretchers,  any  wire  fences  can  be  moved  at 
a  cost  of  only  a  few  cents'  worth  of  labor  per  rod 

Repairing   fences. — An   occasional   inspection   of   wire 
fences  with  hammer,  nails,  staples,  small  pieces  of  wire, 

and  wire 
stretcher  a  t 
hand  will  avoid 
loss  from  in- 
jury to  fences, 
injury  to  crops 
and  often  avoid 
trouble  with 
neighbors,  and  sometimes  prevent  great  injury  to 
animals.  A  fence  is  like  any  other  structure :  it  is  likely 
to  get  out  of  repair,  and  when  in  such  condition  it  should 
be  repaired  at  once,  as  nowhere  else  does  the  "  stitch  in 
time  save  nine  "  to  better  advantage. 


■^-tr" — .'...;^M 

^— 

* 

—  ' 

« 

, 

.— . . 

7 

' 

' 

■^ 

'' — ' 

• 

' 

' 

— ,. 

—  I 

3 

a-* 

^ 

SS 

i:^ 

~ 

^s 

— 

"ZZ 

!ZI 

' 

3 

ii 

Figure  244.     Woven  ribbon  with  only  one  barbed  wire  above. 


360  FARM   DEVELOPMENT 

Barbed  wire  fences. — For  cattle,  sheep  and  swine, 
barbed  wire  strung  on  posts  from  one  to  two  rods  apart 
makes  a  cheap  and  most  effective  fence,  and  for  very 
large  pastures  barbed  wire  is  fairly  well  suited  for  re- 
taining horses.  There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  criticism 
of  barbed  wire  fences,  the  larger  part  of  which  is  un- 
called for.  Many  critics  who  have  seen  only  the  senti- 
mental phase  of  the  question  have  insisted  that  it  is 
cruel  to  inclose  animals  by  a  fence 
which  is  liable,  accidentally,  to  make 
wounds  and  cause  pain.  Barbed  wire 
fences  may  oc- 
casionally in- 
jure horses  so 
that  they  become 
less  salable,  and 
sometimes    even 

Figure  245.     Hog  and  cattle  fence;  26-inch  smooth  wire  hog    Crioole        them, 
ribbon,  with  three  barbed  wires  above.  _^ 

Barbs  often 
slightly  injure  the  skin  of  cattle,  reducing  its  value 
for  leather.  But  when  we  put  against  these  objections 
the  immense  saving  in  the  cost  of  barbed  wire  fencing 
as  compared  with  other  forms  of  fences,  the  smaller 
expense  of  keeping  them  in  repair  and  their  greater 
effectiveness  over  most  other  kinds  of  fences  in  restrain- 
ing animals,  the  barbed  wire  has  the  advantage  for  many 
purposes.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  more  animals  are  in- 
jured and  suffer  from  breaking  through  wooden  fences 
and  gaining  access  to  crops  of  grain  or  very  succulent 
crops;  from  getting  out  of  place  and  being  chased  by 
dogs,  than  from  any  injuries  or  cuts  due  to  barbed  wire 
cuts.  With  properly  built  wire  fences  stock  quietly 
submit  to  their  confinement  and  feed  much  more  con- 
tentedly and  profitably  than  when  they  are  surrounded 
by  fences  which  they  are  constantly  trying  to  rub  down 
or  climb  over. 


FENCES 


361 


Woven  wire  fences  are  manufactured  by  many  firms 
and  sold  through  their  local  dealers  in  large  rolls  of  20, 
30  and  40  rods.  Smooth,  and  also  barbed,  wire  fences 
may  be  made  up  for  cattle  or  horses  alone,  in  which 
case  the  lower  wire  is  a  foot  or  more  from  the  ground ; 
while  fences  reaching  to  the  ground  are  suitable  for 
restraining  hogs  and  sheep  as  well  as  the  larger  animals. 
Barbed  and  smooth  wires  may  be  combined,  and  in  many 
cases  this  is  an  economical  arrangement,  especially  in 
making  fences  which  are  to  restrain  both  large  and  small 
animals.  With  barbed  wire,  smooth  wire,  or  even  with 
smooth  and  barbed  combined,  fences  may  be  woven  at 
the  time  it  is  tacked  on  to  the  posts  by  machinery  devised 
for  that  purpose. 

The  three-wire  barbed  fence  (Figure  248)  is  one  of 
the  large  factors  in  American  cattle  raising.  It  costs 
about  ten  cents  per  rod  for  iron,  ten  cents  for  posts  and 
a   few   cents   for   labor.     The   wires   last   more   than   a 

lllllilitlllll 

N0.7    8    9   10   11  12  13  14  15  16  17  18  19  20 

Figure  246.    Actual  size  of  wires  by  numbers,  7  to  20. 

quarter  of  a  century,  and  good  posts  more  than  ten 
years.  The  annual  expense  for  repairs  is  very  light. 
The  interest  account  and  the  maintenance  account  are 
very  small,  and  if  occasionally  inspected  and  repaired, 
this  fence  is  very  secure  for  the  larger  animals.  The 
posts  are  usually  sharpened  and  driven  with  a  heavy 
sledge  in  the  hands  of  a  man  standing  on  a  sledge  stool. 
Wooden  fences. — Board  fences  were  very  much  in  use 
a  few  decades  ago,  but  are  now  very  rapidly  giving  way 
to  wire.  Fences  made  of  6-inch  pine  boards  are  very 
satisfactory  when  new,  but  the  boards  become  brittle 
and  are  not  safe.     Tight  board  fences  are  entirely  too 


362 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


expensive  for  fencing,  unless  in  exceptional  situations, 
as  about  small  paddocks  near  the  barns,  and  even  here 
heavy  woven  wire  is  better,  except  where  tight  fences 
are  especially  needed  to  serve  as  protection  from  cold 
winds.  Rails  and  poles  in  the  place  of  boards  serve  the 
purpose  of  the  pioneer  with  whom  the  poles  are  some- 
times more  easily 
procured  than  the 
money  with  which  to 
purchase  wire.  Thus, 
tamarack  poles  often 
serve  a  good  purpose 
in  wooded  districts,  as 
do  also  poles  from  the 
quickly  grown  willow 
and  other  trees  in  the 
prairie  regions.  But 
fences  made  in  this 
way  are  short  lived, 
and,  at  the  best,  are 

Figure   247.     Anchoring  fence   ribbon  between  posts     nOt    UCarly    SO    Safc     aS 
miikts  it  possible  to  use  fewer  posta.  .  ;. 

are  wire  fences.  The 
old-fashioned  rail  fences  are  made  up  in  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent ways,  but  cannot  be  classed  as  very  satisfactory 
fences.  They  are  often  blown  down  by  heavy  winds,  are 
rubbed  down  by  cattle,  require  considerable  labor  to 
keep  them  in  repair,  and  are  not  very  durable. 

Hedge  fences  have  been  much  used  in  mild  climates, 
as  in  England  and  in  some  of  the  middle  and  Southern 
states,  but  they  have  almost  dropped  out  of  use  for  field 
fences,  and  wire  is  supplanting  them.  They  add  much 
to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  if  kept  in  repair  and 
travelers  think  they  add  much  to  the  country,  but  they 
are  usually  poor  field  fences.  Where  a  portion  of  a  hedge 
dies  out  animals  can  pass  through  the  gap ;  besides,  gaps 
soon  make  a  fence  look  ragged  and  weak.     Very  many 


FENCES 


363 


of  the  hedges  in  beautiful  England,  where  they  are  valued 
for  their  landscape  effect,  are  mere  weeds  encumbering 
the  ground.  Either  a  wire  fence  must  be  placed  along- 
side them,  or  else  the  fence  must  be  used  in  a  patched- 
up  way  that  makes  it  anything  but  efficient  in  restrain- 
ing animals  and  far  short  of  attractive.  Besides,  in  the 
end,  they  are  nearly  always  expensive,  since  the  labor 
of  caring  for  them  is  considerable.  In  many  cases  part 
of  the  plants  die  out  and  form  harbors  for  weeds.     They 


Figure  248.     Three-wire  barbed  cattle  fence. 

require  some  land,  and  take  some  fertility  from  the  ad- 
joining fields  into  which  they  spread  their  roots.  Hedges 
should  be  used  much  more  for  ornament  on  the  farm- 
stead, but  less  for  field  fences,  especially  less  for  fencing 
against  live  stock.  Many  theoretical  propositions  have 
been  presented  to  the  American  farmers  by  designing 
hedge-fence  companies  and  nurserymen  who  desire  to 
sell  hedge  plants;  but  nothing  practical  comes  out  of 
these  propositions.  A  hedge  costs  more  to  plant  and 
care  for  until  large  enough  to  serve  as  a  fence  than  the 


3^4 


FARM   DEVELOPMENt 


price  of  a  wire  fence.  Besides,  a  wire  fence  is  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  hedge  and  restrain  the  animals  while 
the  hedge  is  passing  through  the  first  few  years  of  its 
growth.  There  are  particular  places  where  a  hedge  is 
useful  as  an  ornament  as  well  as  to  serve  as  a  fence, 
and    the    purposes   of   ornamentation    may   properly   be 

combined  with  the  useful  about 
the  farmstead.  In  some  cases 
growing  willows,  or  other 
trees,  may  serve  as  posts  to 
which  wire  fencing  may  be  at- 
tached, thus  in  part  serving  as 
a  hedge.  But,  as  a  rule,  the 
better  way  is  to  purchase 
posts  or  grow  the  posts  in  the 
forest  plantation  in  the  farm- 
stead or  on  a  separate  part  of 
the  farm,  or  use  reinforced 
cement  posts,  and  then  make 
simple  post  and  wire  fences. 

Stone  fences  were  much 
used  in  the  earlier  times  to 
inclose  those  fields  which  sup- 
plied an  abundance  of  this 
kind  of  fencing  material,  but 
unless  the  stones  are  of  such 
form  and  size  that  they  can  be 
so  laid  that  the  fence  can  stand 
long  without  repairing,  this  kind  of  fence  is  expensive 
to  construct  and  costly  to  keep  in  repair.  As  a  rule,  it 
is  economy,  even  where  stones  are  abundant,  to  collect 
them  into  piles  neatly  laid  up,  and  use  posts  and  wire 
for  fences.  Unless  stones  are  very  abundant  on  the 
farm,  or  in  the  neighborhood,  there  will  be  other  and 
more  practical  uses  for  them. 

Paddock  fences. — Within  the  farmstead  special  fences 


Figure  249.    Tool  for  splicing  wires. 


FENCES  365 

are  needed.  Stronger  fences  are  required  for  keeping 
animals  closely  confined  than  for  keeping  them  on  a 
larger  range.  Barbed  wire  is  objectionable  for  the  pad- 
dock fences,  because  in  the  small  lots  where  many 
animals  may  be  confined  there  is  danger  of  the  younger, 
weaker  or  more  timid  animals  being  crowded  into  the 
fence  and  injured.  Until  recently  the  problem  of  pad- 
dock fences  was  a  hard  one,  but  the  advent  of  heavy 
woven  wire  oflfers  a  complete  and  satisfactory  solution. 
Ribbons  made  of  wire  of  medium  weight,  and  of  light 
poultry  wire,  may  be  purchased  nowadays  at  very  rea- 
sonable prices.  It  is  not  wise  to  use  wire  of  too  small 
a  diameter  in  paddock  fences,  or  even  for  poultry  yards, 
because  small  wires  sooner  rust  so  as  to  break.  Properly 
galvanized  wire  is  more  durable  than  painted  wire. 
Heavy  woven  wire  ribbons  are  sold  which  \vi\\  not  easily 
be  rubbed  down  by  strong  cattle  when  closely  confined. 

Fences  made  by  nailing  boards  horizontally  on  posts, 
or  running  stringers  on  the  posts  and  nailing  on  the 
boards  in  a  vertical  position,  are  expensive  and  not  very 
durable.  However,  if  no  other  protection  from  winds 
can  be  afforded  in  a  yard,  the  tight  board  fence  has  an 
important  use.  In  stony  sections  the  exposed  side  of 
the  lot  may  be  protected  by  a  stone  wall.  Such  walls  are 
much  more  satisfactory  if  they  are  built  up  with  mortar, 
but  a  very  good  wall  may  be  built  without  mortar  if  the 
base  stones  are  well  laid  and  the  wall  built  high  enough 
to  keep  the  animals  from  knocking  oflF  the  top  stones. 

Woven  wire  for  paddock  fences  should  not  only  be 
higher  and  heavier  than  that  used  for  field  fences,  but 
the  horizontal  and  vertical  wires  should  both  be  woven 
closely  together.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  the  strands 
woven  the  same  as  poultry  fence,  only  using  heavier 
material.  Strong,  durable  posts  should  be  firmly  set  not 
over  16  feet  apart,  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  get 
the  corner  and  gate  posts  securely  anchored  and  braced. 


366 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Hurdles  or  portable  fences  are   useful   in   caring  for 
small  flocks  of  sheep,  young  pigs,  calves  or  young  chicks 


Figure  250.  Light  portable  fence  used  In  pasturing  sheep.  One  piece  1x6  and 
three  1  z  4,  16  feet  long,  for  horizontal  bars;  three  pieces  1  x  4,  42  inches  long,  for  up- 
rights; one  piece  1  x  6.  42  inches  long,  and  two  1  x  4,  60  inches  long,  for,  braces. 

when  on  the  pasture.  By  means  of  hurdles  the  animals 
may  be  moved  frequently,  giving  them  a  constant  supply 
of  fresh  feed.     Hurdles  can  be  made  of  boards,  wires 


Figure  251.    A  beautiful  experiment  at  Minnesota  Agricultural  College.     Numerous 
well-trimmed  hedges  growing  side  by  side. 

and  boards,  or  wires  and  slats,  some  form  of  device  for 
holding  the  hurdle  up  being  adapted  to  each  kind  of 
hurdle.  Where  areas  to  be  fenced  are  of  considerable 
size,  movable  barbed  wire  or  woven  wire  fencing  to  be 


FENCES 


367 


attached  to  posts,  is  cheap  and  easily  adapted  to  the 
purpose.  Pastures  of  annual  crops,  or  shift  pastures,  as 
pasturing  the  stubble  after  a  crop  of  grain,  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  temporary  fences.  The  cost  of  moving 
fences  is  often  less  than  the  loss  sustained  by  allowing 
stock   to   remain    in   pastures   which   are   short   of   feed 


Figure  252.    Bucbthora  hedge  beside  roadway. 


while  in  the  adjoining  field  some  green  crop  is  going 
to  waste. 

Ornamental  fences. — On  the  farm,  fences  designed  to 
be  ornamental  should  be  rather  plain  and  substantial, 
not  necessarily  expensive,  and  should  be  of  a  kind  easily 
kept  in  repair.  Iron  fencing  of  a  plain,  strong  design 
makes  a  fence  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  quite  durable. 


368 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


Some  of  the  forms  of  smooth  woven  w^ire  fencing  are 
so  made  up  as  to  be  very  inconspicuous,  a  really  ex- 
cellent feature,  as  heavy  fences  hide  the  beauty  of  the 
trees,  shrubs  and  open  lawn.  Wire-and-picket  fencing 
is  usually  not  so  desirable,  as  it  is  heavy  and  difficult  to 
keep  from  sagging.  The  slats  add  no  beauty  and  the 
fence  is  not  as  durable  nor  has  it  as  pretty  an  effect 
as  a  fence  of  smooth  galvanized  wire.  Strongly  built 
woven   wire   fences   serve  to   run   vines   on,   often   with 


Figure  253.  A,  mold  for  making  posts  7  feet  long,  5x5  Inches  at  the  bottom  and 
3x5  at  the  top;  also  mortar  box.  shovel,  tamping  rod  and  gauge  for  leveling  Uic  first 
layer  of  tamped  mortar  preparatory  to  putting  in  the  first  two  wire  cables;  a,  ends; 
b,  dividing  blocks;  c,  division  boards;  d.  outer  tie;  e,  leveler.  B.  C,  D,  pallets  each 
with  five  posts.  7  feet  5  inches  by  5  inches  and  5  inches  by  3  inches,  from  which  the 
molds  have  been  lifted  as  left  to  cure.  E,  pallet  with  five  posts,  7  feet  6  inches  by  6 
Inches  and  6  inches  by  4  inches.  Molds  for  posts  of  diflferent  lengths  and  diameters 
may  be  used  on  the  same  pallets;  thus,  posts  6  feet  long,  4x4  inches,  3x3  inches; 
posts  8  feet,  6x6  inches,  6x4  inches,  etc.  (After  P.  L.  Wormley,  Farmers'  Bui., 
U.    S.    Dept.    Agr.) 


most  attractive  effect.  Where  stones  are  abundant  and 
can  be  built  into  a  fence,  a  very  pretty  effect  can  be  pro- 
duced about  a  lawn,  especially  as  they  serve  to  train 
Virginia  creepers  or  other  vines.  Where  a  retain- 
ing wall  and  fence  combined  are  needed,  a  hand- 
some fence  can  be  produced  by  combining  these  fea- 
tures. In  some  cases,  a  wire  fence  can  be  added  above 
to  reinforce  the  low  stone  wall,  much  reducing  the  ex- 
pense and  yet  combining  beauty  and  utility.  Too  little 
has  been  done  to  embellish  the  immediate  surroundings 
of  the  average  American  farm  home.     There  is  no  part 


FENCES 


369 


of  the  United  States,  unless  in  those  sections  in  which 
the  rainfall  is  too  deficient,  that  we  do  not  have  shrubs 
suitable  for  making  a  low  handsome  hedge.  The  Buck- 
thorn, for  example,  endures  the  severest  winters  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota.  The  experi- 
ment farms  of  Brandon  and  Indian  Head,  Canada,  North 
of  Dakota  and  Montana,  have  abundantly  demonstrated 
that  beautiful  hedges  can  be  grown  far  north  and  far 

5-3- 


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H 

1 

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u. 

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i 

u. 

ii 

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7/, 

Figure  254.  A,  7-foot  concrete  post,  6x6  throughout;  B,  7-foot,  6  x  6  at  bottom 
and  6  X  3  at  top,  hole  near  top  for  wire  loop  to  hold  staple  strip,  cross-sections  of  ends 
of  B  showing  positions  of  twisted  wire  reinforcements;  C,  7-foot,  6  x  6  at  bottom.  6x3 
at  top,  corners  rounded;  D,  7-foot,  5  x  5  at  bottom,  5  x  3  at  top,  cross-sections  of  ends 
of  D;  E,  corner  post  molded  in  place,  underground  part  11  x  11,  above  ground  part 
8  X  8  at  bottom  and  7  x  7  at  top,  length  8  feet,  holes  near  top  in  both  directions, 
cross-section  of  E  at  ground  line  showing  four  two-wire  cables;  F,  cross-section  of 
corner  post  showing  lugs  molded  to  hold  braces;  also  wire  or  steel  rod  reinforcement. 

out  into  the  dry  plains  country.  As  we  proceed  south- 
ward, the  number  that  are  hardy  is  increased.  Among 
those  plants  making  a  pretty  and  at  the  same  time  dur- 
able hedge  are  the  Buckthorn,  Buffaloberry,  Red  Cedar, 


370 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


White  Cedar  or  Arbor  Vitae,  Russian  Mulberry  and 
many  others  equally  pretty,  but  less  practical  and  hardy. 
Wooden  ornamental  fences  still  have  their  place, 
though  much  restricted  by  the  use  of  the  cheaper,  more 
durable  v^ire  fences  now  available  for  inclosing  lawns. 
There  is  hardly  an  excuse  remaining  for  inclosing  coun- 
try lawns,  school 
grounds,  church  yards 
or  cemeteries  with  a 
board  fence,  which  will 
rapidly  decay,  and  at 
best  is  not  a  thing  of 
beauty.  Plain  woven- 
wire  fencing  can  be 
used  for  most  of  these 
fencesi.  Where  it  is 
desirable  to  obscure 
from  view  objection- 
able features  this  can  be 
done   by   training  Vir- 

Figiire  255.    Comer  post  built  in  place  with  base  Pfinia  CreePCrS,    Kugflish 

tamped  in  hole  enlarged  at  bottom,  and  cement  brace  ^  . 

set  with  enlarged  end  molded  in  place.     Both  post  ivv  AAfilH        PTanP*;       OT 

and  brace  are  reinforced  with  double  twisted  wires.  ^^  J  >  vviiva       gia,pv,o       wi 

Other  vines  on  fences. 
In  making  a  landscape  by  means  of  trees,  shrubs,  lawn 
grasses  and  other  living  forms,  the  modern  wire  fence 
enables  us  to  have  an  inclosure  without  obstructing  the 
view,  or  by  growing  vines  on  it  we  can  frame  the  picture 
or  otherwise  make  it  ornamental.  (See  Figures  251-252.) 
Poultry  fences. — For  inclosing  yards  or  small  fields 
for  poultry,  woven  wire  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory 
of  all  forms  of  fencing.  In  some  places,  as  between 
small  inclosures,  it  is  necessary  to  place  boards  at  the 
bottom  to  a  height  of  2  feet  to  prevent  cocks  from  fight- 
ing. For  outside  fences,  bottom  boards  are  not  neces- 
sary, and  rather  strong  woven-wire  fencing,  with  i  or  2- 
inqh  mesh,  may  be  used.     For  temporary  purposes  light 


FENCES 


371 


poultry  fencing-  can  be  utilized,  though  it  is  not  sub- 
stantial and  is  not  so  easily  moved  to  new  posts  as  the 
ribbons  of  heavier  wire.  The  latter  kind  of  fencing  is 
more  easily  kept  from  sagging  and  is  more  durable. 
The  boards  at  the  bottom  of  the  fence  can  easily  be 
renewed  when  too  much  decayed  to  be  of  further  use. 
Sections  of  woven  wire  attached  to  rectangular  frames, 
say  2  by  6  feet,  made  up  like  hurdles,  are  exceedingly 
useful  in  caring  for  broods  of  young  chicks  which  have 
l)een   hatched  in  incubators   and   are   raised   in  artificial 


Figure  256.    Filling  the  mold  with  cement  after  the  wires  have  been  placed  inside. 
Hole  left  for  the  end  of  the  brace  mold. 


brooders.     Some  of  these  may  be  used  as  covers  of  small 
yards  to  inclose  hens  with  their  broods. 

Posts. — Few  posts  have  been  used  of  other  material 
than  wood,  but  there  is  a  rising  demand  for  a  more  dur- 
able material.  While  wooden  posts  do  not  last  many 
years,  they  have  been  so  much  cheaper  than  either  iron 
posts  or  cement  posts  that  their  use  has  generally  been 
the  most  economical.  For  lawn  fences,  iron  or  cement  are 
in  some  cases  more  practical  than  wood,  and  in  a  few 
cases  stone  may  be  utilized  to  advantage.     White  oak, 


Z7^ 


FARM   DEVELOPMENT 


white  cedar  and  red  cedar  are  prized  because  they  will 
last  many  years,  while  posts  of  such  species  of  trees  as 
tamarack,  basswood  and  white  willow  last  only  a  few 


Figure  257.  A,  cement  post;  B, 
wooden  stay  on  face  of  post  to 
which  wires  are  stapled;  C,  block  set 
In  groove  in  face  of  post  to  hold  stay 
from  being  puslied  up  or  down.  D, 
hole  near  top  of  post  to  receive  wire 
holding  upper  end  of  stay  firmly  in 
place;  E  and  F.  wires  about  post  to 
hold  stay  in  place.  Woven  ribbon 
at  base.     Barbed  wires   above. 


Figure  258.  Wire  loops 
sticking  out  of  the  face 
of  the  posts.  No.  7  gal- 
vanized wire  is  suitable. 
They  can  be  placed  ver- 
tical or  horizontal,  ow- 
ing to  method  of  fasten- 
ing wire  fencing  to  them. 


years.  Wooden  posts  are  so  easily  replaced  in  wire 
fences  and  the  top  is  still  useful  for  fuel,  that  very  poor 
wood  in  the  end  is  not  very  expensive. 


FENCES 


373 


■  '-'jf 

Cement  corner  post  carrying  an  iron  gate. 


Cement  posts. — Posts  made  of  cement  and  reinforced 
by  steel  are  destined  to  rise  in  favor  with  the  increase  in 
the  price  of  wooden  posts.  Especially  for  end  posts  of" 
permanent  fences  will  it  pay  to  use  reinforced  cement,, 
and  in  many 
permanent 
fences  line 
posts  of  these 
materials  are 
in  the  end  more 
profitable  than 
posts  of  wood 
or  other  ma- 
terial. If  well 
made,  they 
grow  strong 
with    age ;     the 

cement  not  only  increasing  in  strength  with  age,  but 
also  protecting  the  steel  from  rusting.  Line  posts  are 
ordinarily  quite  strong  enough  if  reinforced  by  placing 
in  each  corner  a  cable  of  two  wires,  twisted  together,  of 
the  same  size  as  that  used  in  double  barbed  wire,  No.  ii 
or   No.    12,  or  even  ordinary  new  barbed   wire  may  be 

used,      weighing 

rather  less  than 
two  pounds  for 
the  four  cables. 

Unless  extra 
strength  is  re- 
quired a  suitable 
size  for  line  posts 
is  6x6  or  5x7 
inches  at  the  base,, 
^    and  in  either  case 

Figure   260.      Cement   corner  post,    B,    iuul   brace  post.   A, 
with    diagonal    cement    cross    braces    constructed    in    place.     1  ^  f\    inrhpc    iif  flip' 
Forms  should  remain  in  place  for  at  least  a  week,  O  ^  "^    iiiv,iit.a    at  nic. 


•374  FARM    DEVELOPMENT 

top  and  7  feet  long-. 
Where  strong  posts  are 
required  the  base  can 
be  made  6x8  inches 
and  the  tops  3  by  6. 
Shorter  and  longer 
posts,  also  with  lesser 
or  greater  diameter, 
will  fit  particular  con- 
ditions. With  cement 
costing  $2  per  barrel, 
sand  and  gravel  50 
cents  per  cubic  yard, 
wire  cable  6  cents  per 
post,  and  labor  20 
cents  per  hour,  and 
allowing  for  cost  of  molds  and  miscellaneous  expenses, 
the  cost  of  the  smaller  of  these  posts  should  be  rather 
more  than  25  cents  and  the  larger  ones  about  35  cents 
apiece.  Corner  posts  6  to  8  inches  square,  with  two 
more  wire  cables,  or  rods,  in  the  corners,  will  cost  two  tp 
five  times  as  much  as  line  posts,  and  4  x  4  or  4  x  6-inch 


Figure  261.     Stretching  a   ribbon  of  woven  wire 
to  attacli  it  to  a  corner  post. 


Figure  262.     Cement  corner  posts  and  braces  molded  in  place. 


Figure  263.    Cement  corner  post  and  braces,  all  made  in  place,  for  woven  wire  fence. 

braces,  8  to  lo  feet  long,  will  cost  30  to  50  cents  apiece. 
Cement  corner  posts  with  a  large  lower  end,  as  in  Figure 
255,  are  very  awkward  to  remove  when  broken  and  the 
amount  of  cement  required  is  large.  Made  with  straight 
sides,  or  with  rough  and  slightly  enlarged  lower  end, 
corner  posts  will  serve  their  purpose  quite  as  well  and 


Figure  264.     Well-braced  cement  corner  post  and  cement  line  posts. 


376 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Fifeure  2G5.     One  of  the  very  best  systems  of 
bracing  wooden  eJid  posts. 


will  cost  less.  Cement  posts,  unlike  cement  blocks,  can- 
not  well   be   made   in   a   machine   and   carried   aside   on 

panels,  because  the 
pallets  bend  and  the 
posts  crack,  perhaps 
only  sufficient  to  al- 
low air  in  to  rust  the 
reinforcing  wires.  The 
pallets  for  line  fences 
should  remain  in  place 
until  the  post  hardens, 
the  sides  and  ends  of 
the  forms  to  be  used  in 
succession  on  station- 
ary bases.  Narrow,  three-cornered  strips  of  wood  are 
sometimes  laid  lengthwise  in  the  corners  of  the  mold, 
so  as  to  round  the  corners  of  the  post,  but  as  the  down- 
ward face  of  the  post  is  the  one  to  which  the  wire  fenc- 
ing is  attached 
this  is  not  very 
important.  The 
upper  corners 
can  be  rounded 
with  a  trowel, 
if  the  mixture 
is  not  too  wet. 
Painting  the 
insides  of  the 
molds  with 
soap  is  often 
wise.  Four 
inches  from  the 

top  of  the  post,  make  a  transverse  groove  in  the  back 
of  the  post  near  its  top  to  hold  in  place  a  wire 
which  binds  a  staple  board  to  the  post;  or,  8  inches 
below  the  top,  lay  horizontally  a  corn   cob,   a  piece  of 


Figure  266.     Poor  method  of  bracing  corner  posts. 


FENCES 


Z17 


sumach  wood,  with  large  pith,  or  other  material  through 
which  a  wire  can  be  punched,  or  a  piece  of  soft  wood, 
which  can  be  driven  out,  and  thus  provide  a  hole 
through  the  center  of  the  post  for  the  stay  binder.  (See 
Figure  254.) 

Wire  loops  can  also  be  inserted  in  the  surface  of  the 
finished  post  before  it  hardens,  to  serve  as  attachments 
for  the  fencing.  (See  Figure  258.)  In  molding  the 
posts,  fill  in  mortar  and  work,  or  tamp,  and  dress 
down    with    the    deep    leveler    shown    in    Figure    253. 


Figure  267.     Good  method  of  bracing  wooden  corner  posts 


The  apparatus  used  in  making  cement  posts  is  sim- 
ple and  inexpensive,  as  shown  in  Figure  253,  A,  B,  C, 
D  and  E. 

Posts  can  be  made  of  cement  and  any  sharp,  clean 
sand  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  three.  But  where 
gravel  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  or  broken  stone 
of  the  same  size  is  used,  the  posts  will  be  both  stronger 
and   cheaper,   using  one  part   cement,    two   and   one-half 


378 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Figure  268. 


parts  sand  and  five 
parts  gravel  or  stone. 
The  cement  and  other 
materials  can  be 
measured  by  means 
of  bottomless  boxes 
set  in  the  mortar  box. 
The  cement  and  sand 
should  be  thoroug^hly 
mixed  dry ;  a  ''crater" 
should  be  made  in  the 
pile,  the  water  poured 
in,  the  edges  of  the 
crater  worked  into  the 
water  and  then  the 
whole  worked  and 
shoveled     over     until 

thoroughly  mixed.     The  mortar  can  then  be  spread  out 

level  and  the  gravel  or  crushed  stone  can  be  spread  on 

evenly    and    the    whole 

well  mixed  by  shoveling 

over    until    uniform. 

Using    a    "dry    m  i  x," 

which  "must  be  tamped 

for     some     time     before 

water  shows  on  the  sur- 
face," is  not  so  satisfac- 
tory as  a  "  moist  mix  " 

which  "  requires  only  a 

little    tamping   to   bring 

moisture  to  its  surface," 

or  a  "  wet   mix,"  which 

"  can  be  poured  "  and 

it  fills  all  crevasses." 


^ 


Figure  269. 


only  needs  to  be  worked  about  till 
The  reinforcing  wires  are  retained 
in  position  with  some  difficulty  if  a  too  dry  mix  is  used, 
and  are  liable  to  be  forced  so  close  to  the  corners  that 


FENCES 


379 


slight  chipping  or  transverse  checking  of  the  post  will 
cause  them  to  be  exposed.  Some  experimenting  will  be 
necessary  to  learn  the  best  proportions  and  the  best  man- 
ner of  mixing  each  class  of  materials  found  available 
in  a  given  neighborhood. 

La'y,  in  each  of  the  two  lower  corners,  a  cable  of  two 
wires,  twisted  together  and  nearly  as  long  as  the  post,  less 
than  an  inch  from  the  sides  and  less  than  an  inch  from  the 
face  of  the  post.  Again 
fill  in  and  work  or 
tamp,  and  then  dress 
dow^n  with  the  shallow 
leveler,  similar  to  E 
but  shallower,  to  about 
three-quarters  of  an 
inch  from  the  top. 
Place  the  other  two 
cables  in  the  upper  cor- 
ner, less  than  an  inch 
from  the  sides.  Add  the 
upper  layer,  dressing  it  down  level  with  the  side  boards. 
Leave  the  forms  in  place  for  two  days  to  allow 
the    mortar   to    set,    when    the    sides   and    ends    can    be 

drawn  to  serve  again 
on  other  pallets,  using 
care  not  to  disturb  the 
posts.  The  dividing 
strips  between  the 
posts  should  remain  a 
week,  as  removing 
them  earlier  disturbs 
the  posts.  The  posts 
should  lay  several 
weeks,  or  better,  some 
months,  without  dis- 
Figuie27i.  turbance.  Frequent 


Figure  270. 


38o 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


Wetting  down  is  useful  to  secure  the  best  curing.  In 
placing  the  posts  on  the  wagon,  care  should  be  used  not 
to  crack  them  so  as  to  let  air  in  to  cause  the  wires  to 
rust  off. 

Corner  posts  can  usually  best  be  made  in  place.     The 
post  hole  should  be  rather  large  and  deep,  the  bottom 


Figure   272.     Common   three-board   slide  gate   in   three-barbed   wire   fence, 
most  widely  used  American  cattle  fence  and  gate. 


Tliis    is    tlie 


larger  than  the  upper  end,  and  a  hole  lo  or  more  feet 
away  should  be  made  for  the  foot  of  the  brace.  The 
mold  of  the  post  and  the  mold  of  the  brace  should  be 
put  in  place,  and  the  concrete  placed  in  them  and  worked 


Figure  273.     Rustic  and  serviceable  pioneer  gate. 

down  or  tamped.  Some  care  will  be  needed  to  keep  the 
two  or  more  double  twisted  wire  cables  upright  and  in 
place  in  each  outer  corner  of  the  upright  post.  The  post 
should  stand  some  months  before  a  heavy  fence  is 
strained  upon  it.     (See  Figures  259  to  264.) 

Where  a  brace  post  and  cement  cross  braces  are  used 
they  can  easily  be  built  in  place.     Care  must  be  used  in 


FENCES 


381 


liaving  stiff  temporary  wooden  supports  under  the  long 
braces,  and  if  of  boards,  they  must  be  supported  from 
below  or  by  means  of  nails  through  the  side  pieces  of 
the  molding  form.     (See  Figures  260  and  261.) 

Figure  266  shows  a  poor  method  of  bracing  corner 
posts  in  which  only  one  brace  is  used.  The  corner  post 
is  easily  loosened 
causing  a  sag  in 
the  wires.  The 
lower  end  of  the 
brace  being  too 
low  tends  to  lift 
the  corner  post 
out  of  the 
ground.  If 
placed         higher         i       1  •    i 

witiiniif  flif  -v^Wp-  Figure  274.  Splendid  swing  gate.  May  be  constructetl  of 
VVILUUUL    LUC    Wlie     ^ij^gp    fo„j.  ,jj.  more V horizontal  boards. 

from   the  top  of 

the  first  line  post  to  the  bottom  of  the  corner  post  the 
line  post  is  often  pushed  over,  thus  allowing  the  corner 
post  to  follow  the  line  post  and  thus  loosen  the  wire. 
Bracing  corner  posts. — Where  a  single  brace  is  used  it 

should  not  be  too 
slanting  lest  the 
strain  from  the 
wires,  due  to 
changing  tem- 
peratures, caus- 
ing the  wires  to 
lengthen  and 
shorten,  pull  the 
post   out   of   the 

Figure  275.     Western  slide  gate.     Cheap,  simple,   serviceable    o-rniind  T  Vi  f» 

and  durable;  fairly  convenient.  giwuiiu.  ±    ii  c 

plan  of  bracing 
wooden  posts  shown  in  Figure  265,  is  both  cheap 
and    effective.       The    two    blocks    on    the    post,  one    at 


fl 

m 

m 

j 

4 

1 

• . 

j 

1                           1 

i 

1                            1 

1 

4 

M 

1                                   n 

'X 

_ 

1 

L-^ j 

—^ 

J 
1 

J  : 

^  i 

1 

38: 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


the   bottom   on   the   far   side   and   one   near   the   surface 
of  the  ground,  help  the  post  to  hold  its  load.   The  twisted 

diagonal    wire 
i      """       l¥fflyvxyBkl)<yKXK)lkxxxk>o(y;0(^^  prevents      the 

brace  post  giv- 
ing way,  and 
thus   the   brace 

PMgure276.    Steel  slide  gate,  made  Of  angle  iron  and  woven  wire.       ^''^    nela    111    place 

and  keeps  the 
corner  post  from  responding  to  the  pull  of  the  wires. 
In  starting  to  erect  a  wire  fence,  the  planting  and  brac- 


Figure  277.       Single  hinged  drive  gate  of  angle  iron  and  woven  VFire. 


ing  of  corner  and  end  posts  is  a  matter  of  most  careful 

consideration.     If  the  wires,  or  ribbons  of  wires,  can  be 

attached    to     an 

unyielding     post 

at      the      corner 

they  do  not  sag 

and  serve  to  hold 

all      the      other 

posts      in      line. 

These  end  posts 

need      to      be 

planted       deeply 

in     the     ground      •  *  *  • 

and        thorOUcrhlv        T'lsure  27S.     A   large,    wide  gate  better  adapted  for  an  en- 
fc>       J^      trance  to  the  farm  than  for  a  common  pasture  or  lane  gate. 


FENCES 


383 


Figure  279.    I'iuUlock  gate  made  of  2  x  4  pieces. 


Figure   2S0.     Hea\T   paddock   gate. 


384 


FARM    DEVELOPMENT 


anchored  by  cross  pieces  fastened  to  their  botton.i 
and  braced,  as  with  a  rather  long  timber,  lo  to  14  feet, 
reaching  some  distance  along  the  line  of  the  fence,  and 
placed  at  not  too  wide  an  angle  with  the  horizontal,  so 
as  to  avoid  pulling  the  corner  post  out  of  the  ground. 

Gates. — Gate  devices  for  fences  are  very  numerous 
and  the  patent  office  at  Washington  has  very  many  ap- 
plications for   letters  of  patent  for  special   patterns   on 

gates.  Since 
simplicity  is  one 
of  the  first  neces- 
sities in  a  gate, 
complicated 
forms  have  not 
become  popular, 
and  the  styles  of 
gates  most  in 
use  are  of  ex- 
ceedingly sim- 
ple construction. 
^  A  number  of 
forms       which 

Figure    281.     Stile   across    a    wire   fence;    wires   sliould    lie      liovp  n  r  n  ir  p  n 

wrapped  witii  clotli  to  avoid  tearing  clotliing.  ikxxk::         ^j  i  u  v   c  ii 

very  useful 
are  here  illustrated.  Since  iron  and  wire  are  so  much 
more  durable  and  strong,  and  easily  handled,  gates  made 
of  gas  pipe,  or  better,  of  angle  iron  and  woven  wire,  or 
other  forms  of  iron,  should  take  the  place  of  wooden  gates 
in  many  situations.  Where  gates  are  not  much 
used,  combined  wood  and  wire-hinged  gates,  and  wood 
and  iron  sliding  gates,  answer  every  purpose,  and  have 
the  great  advantage  of  being  easily  made  and  easily  re- 
paired. Rustic  gates,  as  in  Figure  273,  may  be  made 
pretty;  and  gates  of  iron  as  inconspicuous  and  therefore 
not  out  of  harmony  with  other  features  in  making  up  a 
pretty  landscape. 


INDEX 


Page 

Acre-foot,  the.  of  water.  ... •    258 

Aeration,  soil  acceleration  by  cul- 

tivation  and  drainage  ....      /u 

Agassiz  Lake,  the  Ancient 44 

Agricultural  sciences . •*" 

substances  carry  force 1^ 

technology r  '  c  ' 

Agriculture,       Department,     bee 
Department  of  Agriculture 

sciences  related  to. 2b 

technical  education  m g 

Air,  movement  in  pla,nts o^ 

movement  in  soil o^ 

spaces  in  soil ^' 

the  soil  needs •  •  •  •      o» 

Alkali  soils ;•  v--^^^'  ^^?'  ^^^ 

excess  of,  washed  out  by  im- 

gation 267 

Ancient  Lake  Agassiz ••••••      if. 

Animals'  dependence  on  plants.  .      /U 
development   from   lower 

forms    ^j 

latent    energy • ^'■ 

Appliances,  surveying     and    me- 

chanical 1  ^o 

Aqueducts,  iron ^J^c 

wood f  *^ 

Arable  fields • 12U 

Ashes  for  road  surfaces.  ......  .  .  •    ^^^ 

Associations,  State  and  National 
good  roads,  promote  road 

building    .• ^^* 

Assorted  till,  value  as  soil w 

"Backsetting"  sod.  .  .  • .•  ■  •  •  ,•    l-'^ 

"Back    sight"    or      plus    sight   , 

explanation   i^^ 

Bacteria ^i,^ 

Bacteriology    ,^^ 

Barbed  wire  fences.  .... ^ov 

Bargain  hunting  m  buying  farm,      v* 

Bam  buildings.  •••■■, in? 

Barnyards  and  paddocks lu' 

Bicycle  paths ^*' 

Blanket,  dust.  . »^ 

Blank  forms,  drainage lo^ 

value 152 

Board  drams ^^' 

Botany ,^^ 

Bracing  comer  posts -soi 

Branch  drains • }^^ 

Breaking  prame  sod ^^^ 

Breathing  pores ■  •  •  •  •  •  •  o^ 

Bridges... 272,300.  301 

Brushing  the  land.  . \^' 

Buildings  for  specialties iu» 

Buildings,  the  bam 1  iJ 


Page 
Bureau  of  Soils,  Department  of 

Agriculture,   surveys 93 

Burning  the  surface  peat 131 

Business,  farming  a  good 13 

organization  of  the  farm.  ...      yo 

plan  should  be  stable 98 

the  farm  the  foundation  of .  .      89 

Capillarity   •.-••• -?2 

Capstan  plow  ditchers 216 

Cement  posts.  .  .  .^ ^'J' 

Chains,  surveyors  .  .  .  ...  •••••■•    1°^ 

Character  of  farm  neighborhood .      91 

Chemicals 125 

Chemistry    {' 

Chlorophyll    •••••••••. ,5^ 

Cities  aid  m  road  building 28^ 

Cities,  good  roads  help 279 

Classification  of  soils 5i 

mechanical o^ 

Clay  soils,  heavy,  notes  on.    263 

mixing  sand  into,  beneht.  .  .    13/ 

Clearing  up  timber  lands 127 

Concrete  culvert •    ^^^ 

Construction,  culverts  and  small 

bridge   structures 301 

ditches,     farm     supply    and 

field 259 

road   surface 322 

survey  for. j^^ 

surveying    for i';? 

tile  drains 200 

Contour  survey  or  cross  section  .    1/4 
Conveying  water  from  source  to 

farms    •  •  "  '-i'-"  '  ' 

Co-operation       in       roadmaking, 

State  encouragement  of.  .    284 

Comer  posts,  bracing 381 

Costs  and  profits,  studv .........    146 

data,   notes  by   Maurice   O. 

Eldridge  ...._ 291 

Cost  of  clearing  land  of  stumps.  .    123 

crushed  rock ■^jZ 

drain  tiles ]^° 

grading  ..... f'/l 

laying  tile  drains...  . ^1^ 

roads  of  various  widths 29/ 

sand-clay   roads 29b 

tiling  per  acre j'-; 

Country  life  education  and  good 

roads • •  •  •    ^'^ 

institutions  devoted  to  edu- 
cation for ,-.••■■>        ' 

Crops,   certainty  and   quality  ot 

increase    ^^^ 

need  irrigation ■f « ' 

rotation,  provision  for 1 1^ 


386 


INDEX 


Page 
Cross  section  or  contour  survey .  .    174 

Crowns  and  side  ditches 321 

Crushed  rock  for  macadam  roads  330 
Cultivation,  accelerates  soil  aera- 
tion       70 

irrigated  fields  require  special  271 

Culvert,  concrete 301 

Culverts 300,   301 

Datum  plane 185 

Dead  furrows 183 

Department  of  Agriculture,  bul- 
letin   on   measurement    of 

irrigation  water 258 

Department  of    Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau of  Soils 93 

taking  part  in  drainage 232 

Office      of      Public      Roads, 

281,  334,   353 

reports  of  drainage 232 

Depth  of  drains 197 

Devices,    grading 205 

Dikes,  co-operative  care  of 230 

pumps  and  gates 228 

Dirt  mulch,  value 51,     85 

Ditchers,  capstan  plow 216 

Ditches 163 

field 259 

opening  with  machinery.  ...    212 

roadside  180 

side 321 

Ditch,  filling 210 

grading  bottom  of 202 

laying  tiles  in 206 

surveying  line  of 184 

water  from,  taking  onto  land  262 

Ditching  machinerv 212 

plow    220 

Drag,  log 344 

or  slush  scraper 317 

Drainage    140 

accelerates  aeration  of  soil.  .      70 
agricultural   colleges  dealing 

with    232 

benefits 149 

education 232 

effect  on  soil  shown  in  vari- 
ous ways 150 

Government     taking    active 

part  in 232 

land  needing 141 

legislation 146,   153 

localities  especially  needing.    145 
need,     how     to     determine 

141.  145,  147,   148 

not  needing 148 

plats   162 

relation  of  rainfall 148 

reports    of     Department     of 

Agriculture   on 232 

sewers 225 

surface    179 

Drain,  clay  as  material  for  mak- 
ing     166 

cost  of 168 

entrance  of  water  into 170 

injury  by  freezing 152 


Page 

Drain,  laying  in  ditch 206 

price  list  of 169 

quality   of 169 

size  of 196 

tile  factories 168 

tiles 166 

Draining  roadbed     307 

Drains,  branches  of 193 

construction  of  tile 200 

depth  to  make 197 

making  9pen 216 

obstructions  in 231 

opening,  with  spade 200 

private    155 

section  of  land  with 177 

slope  or  grade  of 194 

stone  and  board 227 

surface    177 

making  a  plan  for 181 

tile,  construction  of 200 

cost  of  laying 215 

mapping  out 174 

surv^ey  for  construction .    172 

vertical  and  special 221 

Drift,  glacial 38 

Drouth,  endurance  by  soil 90 

Durability,  roads,  points  in 305 

Dust  blanket 51,     85 

jacket  in  stone  crusher 338 

Earth,  economical  handling  of ..  .    313 
general  movement  of  water 

in 85 

geological  history  of 32 

roads,  common 322 

Earth,    surfaces,    spreading    and 

compacting    327 

water,  movements  in 85 

Earthworms,  benefit  to  soil 68 

Education,   drainage 232 

for  country  life 5 

institutions  devoted  to.        7 

good  roads 353 

in  agriculture;  technical.  ...        3 
Eldridge,    Maurice   O.,   notes  on 

cost-data    291 

Electricity,   relations  of  to  agri- 
culture          27 

Elements  required  for  growth  of 

plants 62 

Elevating  grader 220,  317 

Elevator  machinery  for  water.  .  .    247 
Entomology,  relations  of  to  agri- 
culture          29 

Excavating     cuts    and    building 

grades 319 

Explosives,  nature  and  use 124 

Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  history  of .  .      44 

the  recession  of 47 

Farm,    business    organization    of 

the 96 

general  foundation  plans  for 

the 96 

healthfulness   of 90 

producing  capacity  of 90 

home,  racially  most    impor-     15 
tant  selection  of  a 89 


INDEX 


387 


Page 
Farms,  irrigated,  model  plans  of.    250 

irrigation  schemes 248 

Farm,  neighborhood,  character.  .      91 

planning  the 96 

proximity  to  markets 91 

residence    109 

supply   ditches 259 

the,  foundation  of  the  farm 

business    89 

Farmer,  help  to,  from  good  roads  277 

Farmers,  relation  of  to  roads.  .  .  .    352 

value  of  a  strong  race  of,  to 

state   13 

Farming,  as  a  vocation 13,      17 

enterprise  in 100 

Farmstead 101 

defined   96 

site  of  the 101 

Fence  posts 371 

Fences,  barbed  wire 360 

hedge    362 

hurdle  and  portable      366 

ornamental    367 

paddock 364 

portable    366 

poultry 370 

repairing 359 

various  kinds  of 355 

wooden 361 

woven  wire 361 

Fertility,  maintenance  of  soil.  ...      58 
Fertilizers,  more  profitable  use  of  ISO 

Fertilizing  peaty  land 132 

Field,   ditches 259 

laterals,  locating 259 

plans  should  be  platted  on 

paper    Ill 

stone,  uses  for 129 

Fields,  making  them  arable 120 

planning  of Ill 

Filling  the  ditch 210 

Film  water 75 

Flat  lands 144 

Flooding  of  low  lands,  suggestions   145 

Fords    349 

"Foresight",    or    "minus   sight", 

explanation   191 

Forms,  blank    nd  notebook 162 

Free  water 75 

Freezing,  injury  to  tiles  by 152 

Fungi    125 

Furrows,    dead 183 

Furrow  slice 51 

pan 51 

Garden 108 

Gates 228,  384 

Gates,  water 253 

Geological  history  of  the  earth.  .  .      32 

Geology    27 

some  interesting  glacial ....      44 

'Glacial,  drift  or  till 38 

geology,  some  interesting.  .  .      44 

period 36 

Glaciers,  materials  moved  by.  ...      42 


Page 
Good  roads,  and  country  life  edu- 
cation      278 

education 353 

farm  life  improved  by 278 

help  cities  and  villages 279 

help  the  farmer 277 

help      ^ransportation      com- 
panies      279 

investment  in,  pays 277 

literature    353 

Grades    building  of 319 

formation 311 

materials,  and  their  placing.    320 
or  slope,  deciding  upon  the 

amount  of 194 

stakes,  notes  on 199 

Grader,   elevating 220,  317 

Grading,  cost  of 296 

Grading,  devices 205 

ditch  bottom 202 

Grass  lands,  partial  clearing  for.  .    126 
Gravel,  as  surfacing  material.  . .  .    323 
many  grades  or  forms  of .  . . .   323 
surfaces,  spreading  and  com- 
pacting      327 

Grubbing,  explosives  used  in.  . .  .    124 
Health,  consideration  in  locating 

farm    ,      90 

Heavy  clay  soils 2-63 

Hedge  fences 362 

Hedges,  roadside 351 

Highway  fimds 281 

Hills,  formation  of  morainic  ....      39 

Hillsides,  springy 143 

terracing 138 

Hilly  cotmtries 287 

Home,  farm,  most  important.  ...      15 

selection  of  a  farm 89 

training    2 

House,  farm 109 

Hurdle  fences 366 

Hydrostatic  water 83 

Hygroscopic  water 83 

Implements,  drainage 165 

Institutions,      educational,      for 

country  life 7 

Instnxment,  new  height  of,  fixing  188 

Instruments,    leveling 160 

Sctrveying 158 

Intercontinental  highway  project  273 
Investment  in  good  roads,  profit.    277 

Iron  aqueduct 245 

Irrigation 234 

and  special  cultivation 271 

Irrigation,  crops  needing 267 

laws 242 

schemes  for  farm 248 

Lake  Agassiz,  the  Ancient 44 

Lake   waters 142 

Land,     a     section    with    surface 

drains 177 

brushing 117 

clay,  notes  on 263 

clearing  of  stumps,  cost  per 

acre 123 

drainage    148,  206,  215.  225 


3^ 


INDEX 


Page 

Land,  flat 144 

need  of  drainage 141 

peaty,  clearing  and  cropping 

130,  132 

subduing  the 117 

surfaces,      development      of 

present 34 

survey,  plat  of  land  should 

show 199 

tillage  with  more   ease   and 

better    profits 151 

Lands,  grass,  clearing  for 126 

plowing  and  fertilizing  peaty 

soU 132 

sewers  used  to  drain.  ......  225 

vinderdraining  peaty  soils.  .  .  228 

Lanes  and  roads 107 

Latent     energy     in     plants    and 

animals 21 

Laterals,  field,  locating 259 

Lawn    108 

Laws,  irrigation 239,  242 

Laying  tile  drains,  cost  of 215 

tiles  in  the  ditch 206 

Legislation,  drainage 153 

irrigation    239 

road 280 

Leveling  instruments 160 

use  of  in  planning  drain ....  186 
Levels,  how  to  use  measurement 

of 191 

Light,  sandy,  gravelly  or  chalky 

soils 64 

Line  of  the  ditch,  surveying  the.  .  184 

Literature,  good  roads 353 

Locating  field  laterals 259 

Location,    farmstead 101 

Log  drag 344 

Lumbermen's  ice  roads 349 

Macadam  road,  unit  cost  of  object 

lesson    293 

crushed  rock  for 330 

placing  the  layers  of 334 

repairing 3\5 

selection  of  material;  for  .  .  332 

Macadam  stone  roads 330 

Machine,  reversible  road.  .  .  .219,  314 

Machinery,  ditching 212 

drainage 165 

farm,  for  removing  stones.  .  .  129 

Machinery  for  elevating  water.  .  .  247 

Manuring  peaty  soils 134 

Markets,  proximity  of  farm  to.  .  .  91 
Materials,  road,  for  the  grade,  and 

placing   320 

surface,    mixing 325 

Mathematics  as  related  to  agri- 
culture      26 

Measurement  of  levels,  how  to  use  19 1 

Measuring  weir 254 

cost  of  constructing 256 

Mechanical,  appliances   and    sur- 
veying   156,  245,  286 

classification  of  soils 63 

Mechanics  as  related  to  agricul- 
ture    26 


Page 

Medium,  soils 65 

textured  soils 264 

Meteorology,  remarks. 28 

Mileage  of  roads  in  United  States  284 

Miners'   inch 257 

"Minus     sight"  or    "fore  sight," 

explanation   19 1 

Mixing  surface  materials 325 

Model  plan  of  irrigated  farm.  ...  250 

Modem  road  building 272 

Moorlands,  soil  formation  on ...  .  56 

Morainic  hills,  the  formation  of .  .  39 

Mulch,  dirt,  and  dust  blanket.  .  .  85 

Natural    history 33 

Neighborhood,  character  of 91 

Notebook,  drainage 162 

Object  lesson  macadam  road,  imit 

cost  of 293 

Obstructions,  open  drains  should 

be   kept   free    from 231 

Open    drains 216 

should  be  kept   free  from 

obstructions 231 

Orchard    108 

Organization,  farm  business 96 

Origin  of  the  great  prairies 41 

Ornamental  fences 367 

Outlets,  drainage 213 

Paddock    fences 364 

Paddocks  and  barnyards 107 

Pasturing,  solidifying  by 131 

Paths,  bicycle 347 

Peat,  burning  the  surface 131 

Peaty  lands,  clearing  of  trees,  etc.  130 

.     growing  crops  on 132 

plowing  and  pulverizing.  ...  132 

underdraining 228 

Peaty  soils 65 

manuring 134 

Physics  as  related  to  agriculture  26 

Physics,   road 303 

Pike    districts 283 

Pioneer  roads,  locating 286 

Plan  for  surface  drains 181 

Planning,  farm .♦.  96 

Plans,  farm,  general  foundation.  96 
Plant     compounds     are     storage 

batteries 19 

Plants,  air  movement  in 69 

development    from   lower 

forms    32 

latent  energy  in 21 

Plants,  and  the  soil  water 71 

animals  depend  on 70  . 

elements  required  for  use  of.  62 

relation  of  air  to  soil  and  ...  67 

substances  used  by 62 

Plat,  land,  shovdd  show  the  gen- 
eral land  survey 199 

Plats,  drainage 162 

Plow,  ditchers 216 

for  ditching 220 

Plowing,  and  subsoUing 71 

breaking  prairie  sod 134 

peaty  land 132 

Plowing  peaty  lands <32 


INDEX 


389 


Page 
"Plus    sight",    or    "back    sight", 

explanation   191 

Ponds 142 

Portable  fences 366 

Posts   358,  371 

Posts,  bracing  comer 381 

cement   373 

setting    358 

Poultry    fences 370 

Power     amount    of,    required    to 

draw  a  load 342 

Prairies,  great,  origin  of 41 

Prairie  sod,  breaking 134  . 

Preliminary  survey 286 

Price  list  of  drain  tiles 169 

Private  drains 155 

Production,  soil,  capacity 90 

Profile,  how  to  make  a,  of  level 

survey 192 

Profits,  and  cost  must  be  carefully 

studied 146 

better,  from  land 151 

Puddling  of  clay  soils 304 

Pumps    228 

Rainfall,  relation  to  drainage.  .  .  .    148 
Ravelling  of  stones  from  the  sur- 
face of  stone  road 345 

Red  River  of  the  North,  valley  of   145 

Relation  of  farmers  to  roads 352 

Repairs,  fence 359 

macadam  and  telford  road .  .    345 

road 306,   342 

Residence  on  the  farm 109 

Resistance  to  traction 305 

Revolving  screen  in  stone  crusher  338 

Roadbed 307 

draining   the 307 

Road  building,  economy  in  hand- 
ling earth 313 

modem 272 

need  of  pushing 276 

neglect    276 

Road,  legislation 280 

machine,  reversible 219,  314 

surface,      ashes     useful     for 

hardening 325 

constructing  the 322 

specifications   for 289 

telford 336 

width  of 312 

Roads,  and  bridges 272 

and  lanes 107 

common  earth  and  sand.  .  .  .    322 

repairing 342 

cost  of  sand-clay 295 

locating    286 

lumberman's  ice 349 

macadam,  placing  layers.  .  .    334 

metal    324 

mileage  in  United  States.  .  .  .    284 
of  various  widths,  cost  of.  .  .    297 

physics   of 303 

pioneer,  locating 286 

relation  of  farmers  to 352 

repairing  of 342 

selection  of  material 332 


Page 

Roads,  snow 346 

stone 330 

stones  which  are  valuable  for  323 

unit   cost 293 

wood 324 

Roadside,  ditches 180 

trees    351 

weeds    351 

Rock,  crushed,  cost  of 339 

crushers 337,   338 

for  macadam  roads 330 

igneous 35 

quantities  required  for  differ- 
ent widths  and  depths.  .    339 

Rods,  surveyors' 162 

Root  hairs 71 

Roots,  of  field  crops 72 

removal  from  peaty  lands.  .  .  130 
trees,    protection    of    drains 

from 210 

Rotation,  crop,  provision  for  sys- 
tematic         112 

Sand-clay  roads,  cost  of 295 

Sand,  mixing  into  clay  soils 137 

roads 322 

Sandy  soils,  light 64 

Science,  relation  of  to  agriculture     25 

Sciences,  agricultural 30 

Scraper,  slush ,..    317 

Screen,  revolving  in  stone  crusher  338 

Seepage  water 138 

Sewers,    drainage 225 

Shelter  belts,  farmstead 102 

Side  ditches 321 

Silt  wells  in  drainage 213- 

Sinkholes   142 

Site  of  the  farmstead 101 

Slope    or   grade,    deciding    upon 

amount  of 194 

Sloughs 141 

Slush    scraper 317 

Snow  roads 346 

Sod,  backsetting 135 

breaking  prairie 134 

Soil,  aeration,  acceleration  by  cul- 
tivation, and  drainage   ...      70 

air  movement  in 69 

assorted  till,  quality 40 

body 61 

classification    53 

color  of 65 

cultivation,    acceleration    of 

aeration .      70 

drainage,  acceleration  of  aer- 
ation        70 

effect    of    drainage     on,     is 

shown  in  various  ways.    150 

fertility 61 

sustaining 58 

formation 51,     52 

agencies  in 54 

favorable   conditions;  .  .      57 

under   difficulties 55 

formation  on  moorlaruis.  ...  56 
production,  capacity  for.  ...  90 
relations 67 


390 


INDEX 


Page 

Soil,  sponge-like  action  of 80 

stratification    of 1 48 

substances,  toxic,  theory  of.      60 

survey 93 

unassorted  till,  quality 39 

water  and  the  plant 71 

Soils,  air  spaces 67 

alkaline 66.  138,  266 

areas  of  types  of 53 

Bureau    of.    Department    of 

Agriculture    93 

chalky 64 

classification  of 53 

mechanical 63 

clay,  mixing  sand  into 137 

drainage,     effect     shown    in 

various  ways 150 

excess  of  alkali  in,   washed 

out  by  irrigation 267 

formed  in  place 43 

gravelly    64 

heavy  clay 263 

hungry   64 

judging,  care  needed 92 

light  sandy 64 

manuring  peaty 134 

mechanical  classification  of       63 

mediiun    65 

medium  texture 264 

mixing  sand  into  clay 137 

Soils,  movement  of  air  in 69 

peaty    65 

puddling  of  clay 304 

quality,  discussion  of 58 

room  for  air  in 67 

*"         solidifying  by  pasturing.  ...    131 

warm    64 

water  holding  power  varies 

with  different 81 

Sources,  water 238 

Spade,  opening  drains  with 200 

Specialized  plants  and  animals.  .      23 

Specialties,  building  for 108 

Specifications  for  the  road  surface  289 

Split  log  drag 344 

Spreading  earth  and  gravel  sur- 
faces       327 

Springy  hillsides 143 

Stakes,  grade,  notes 199 

sur\'^eyors'    162 

St.   Anthony   Falls,   history  and 

changes 44,     47 

State,  benefit  by  strong  race  of 

farmers 13 

co-operation   in  roadmaking 
shovild  be  encouraged  by 

the 284 

Stomata 69 

Stone,  drains 227 

field,  uses  for 129 

road,  loosening  of  stone  from 

the  surface  of 345 

worn,  reconstruction 346 

Stones,  removing 128 

road,  value 323 

Stones,  uses  for  field 129 


Page 

Stratification,    soil 148 

Study,    agricultural,     interesting 

and  useful 16 

Stumps,  burning  to  remove 126 

clearing  land  of,  cost  per  acre   123 
Stump  land,  seeding  to  grass.  ...    126 

piillers,  use  of 121 

Subirrigation 271 

Subsoil   51 

Subsoiling    71 

Success,  enterprise  as  factor 100 

Surface,  drainage 179 

plans  for 181 

drains,  a  section  of  land  with   177 

making  a  plan  for 181 

grade,  width  of  depends  upon 

various  conditions 312 

materials,  mixing 325 

peat,  burning  the 131 

road,    specifications 289 

Surfacing  material,   road,  gravel 

as 323 

mixing  of 325 

properties  of 305 

Survey,  contour  or  cross  section     174 

of  roadway 288 

for  construction  of  tile  drains  172 
land,    plat    of    land    should 

show 199 

notes,  drain,  should  be  well 

preserved 162 

preliminary    286 

Surveying,  and  mechanical  appli  • 

ances 156,  245,  286 

instruments 158 

line  of  the  ditch 184 

new    height    of    instniment, 

fixing    188 

stakes  and  tapes 162 

transit •    158 

Surveyors'  notes  should  be  pre- 
served      199 

Survey,  special  notes 198 

Swamps    142 

Swampy  countries 287 

Tailings  from  rock  crusher 338 

Tapes,  surveyors' 162 

Taxation,  method  of 282 

Technical    education    in    agricul- 
ture          3 

Technology,  agricultural 31 

Telford  road 336 

roads,    repairing 345 

Terracing  hillsides.  . 138 

Tile  drains,  construction  of 200 

cost  of  laying 215 

mapping  of 174 

opening  ditches  for 200 

survey  for  construction  of .  .    172 

Tiles,  drain 166 

injury  of  by  freezing 152 

quality  of  clay  used  in 166 

Tiles,  drain,  laying  in  the  ditch.  .    206 
protecting  from  the  roots  of 

trees    210 

union  at  branches  of 207 


INDEX 


391 


Page 

Tiles,  size  of 196 

Till,  assorted,  soil  value 40 

glacial 38 

Timber  lands,  fire  as  a  means  of 

clearing   up 127 

Time  of  the  day  to  supply  water.  270 

year  in  which  to  supply  water  267 

Tools,  farm 129 

Toxic  soil  substances,  theory  of.  .  60 

Tractioi  ,  resistance  to 305 

Transit,  surveyors' 158 

Transportation   companies,   good 

roads  help 279 

Tree  roots,  drain  obstruction  by  210 

Trees,  removal  from  peaty  l^nd.  .  130 

roadside    351 

Types  of  soils,  areas  of 53 

Unassorted  till  formed  good  soils  39 

Underdraining  peaty  lands 228 

Undulating  country 41 

Unit  cost  of    object-lesson  maca- 
dam road,  Springfield,  Mo.  293 
Value  of  soils,  care  in  judging  the  92 

Vertical  drains 221 

Villages,  help  from  good  roads.  .  .  279 

Vocation,  farming  as  a 13 

Vocations,   farming    is    rising  in 

the  scale  among 17 

Wagons,  wide  tire 344 

Water,  acre-foot  of 258 

conveying    from     source    to 

farms    252 

entrance  of  into  drain  tile ...  170 

film  and  free 75 


Page 

Water,  gates 253 

general  movements  ©f,  in  the 

earth 85 

holding    power    varies    with 

different   soils 81 

hydrostatic    83 

hygroscopic    83 

machinery  for  elevating.  ...    247 

measuring  of 254,  258 

movements  in  the  earth.  ...      85 

sources  of . . 238 

taking  from  ditches  upon  the 

land 262 

time  of  the  day  to  supply ..  .    270 
time  of  the  year  in  which  to 

supply 267 

Waters,  lake 142 

Waterways,  use  and  improvement 

of 151 

Weeds,  roadside 351 

Weir,  measuring 254 

Wide  tire  wagons 344 

Width  of  road 312 

Width  of  the  surface  grade  de- 
pends upon  various  condi- 
tions       312 

Windbreaks,  farmstead 102 

Wire  fence 361 

Wood  and  metal  roadways 324 

Wood  aqueducts,  need 245 

Wooden  fences 361 

Worms,  earth,  benefit  to  soil ....      68 

Woven  wire  fences 361 

Zoology    29 


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either  seeds  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  and  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en- 
larged.    Illustrated.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Landscape  Gardening 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture,  university  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art ;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  paragraph  is 
short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect  clearness  to  the 
discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of  the  natural  difficulty 
of  presenting  abstract  principles  the  whole  matter  is  made 
entirely  plain  even  to  the  inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated. 
152  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth Net,  $0.75 

Hedges,  Windbreaks,  Shelters  and  Live  Fences 

By  E.  P.  Powell.  A  treatise  on  the  planting,  growth 
and  management  of  hedge  plants  for  country  and  suburban 
homes.  It  gives  accurate  directions  concerning  hedges;  how 
to  plant  and  how  to  treat  them;  and  especiafly  concerning 
windbreaks  and  shelters.  It  includes  the  whole  art  of  making 
a  delightful  home,  giving  directions  for  nooks  and  balconies, 
for  bird  culture  and  for  human  comfort.  Illustrated.  140 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 

(8) 


Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States  of  America 

By  William  Jasper  Spillman.  A  practical  treatise  on 
the  grass  crop,  seeding  and  management  of  meadows  and 
pastures,  description  of  the  best  varieties,  the  seed  and  its 
impurities,  grasses  for  special  conditions,  lawns  and  lawn 
grasses,  etc.,  etc.  In  preparing  this  volume  the  author's  object 
has  been  to  present,  in  connected  form,  the  main  facts  con- 
cerning the  grasses  grown  on  American  farms.  Every  phase 
of  the  subject  is  viewed  from  the  farmer's  standpoint.  Illus- 
trated.   248  pages.    5x7  iiches.    Cloth $1.00 

The  Book  of  Corn 

By  Herbert  Myrick,  assisted  by  A.  D.  Shambia,  E.  A. 
Burnett,  Albert  W.  Fulton,  B.  W.  Snow,  and  other  most 
capable  specialists.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  culture,  mar- 
keting and  uses  of  maize  in  America  and  elsewhere  for 
farmers,  dealers  and  others.  Illustrated.  372  pages.  5x7 
inches.      Cloth $1.50 


The   Hop — Its   Culture  and   Care,    Marketing   and 
Manufacture 

By  Herbert  Myrick.  A  practical  handbook  on  the  most 
approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing  and  selling 
hops,  and  on  the  use  and  manufacture  of  hops.  The  result  o£ 
years  of  research  and  observation,  it  is  a  volume  destined  to 
be  an  authority  on  this  crop  for  many  years  to  come.  It  takes 
up  every  detail  from  preparing  the  soil  and  laying  out  the 
yard,  to  curing  and  selling  the  crop.  Every  line  represents  the 
ripest  judgment  and  experience  of  experts.  Size,  5x8; 
pages,  300;  illustrations,  nearly  150;  bound  in  cloth  and  gold; 
price,  postpaid. $1.50 

Tobacco  Leaf 

By  J.  B.  Killebrew  and  Herbert  Myrick.  Its  Culture  and 
Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture.  A  practical  handbook 
on  the  most  approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing, 
packing  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an  account  of  the  opera- 
tions in  every  department  of  tobacco  manufacture.  The 
contents  of  this  book  are  based  on  actual  experiments  in  field, 
curing  barn,  packing  house,  factory  and  laboratory.  It  is  the 
only  work  of  the  kind  in  existence,  and  is  destined  to  be  the 
standard  practical  and  scientific  authority  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  tobacco  for  many  years.  506  pages  and  150  original 
engravings.     5x7  inches.     Cloth ^2or> 

(y. 


Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  history, 
description,  methods  of  propagation  and  full  directions  for 
the  successful  culture  of  bulbs  in  the  garden,  dwelling  and 
greenhouse.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years 
made  bulb  growing  a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority 
on  their  cultivation  and  management.  The  cultural  direc- 
tions are  plainly  stated,  practical  and  to  the  point.  The 
illustrations  which  embellish  this  work  have  been  drawn 
from  nature  and  have  been  engraved  especially  for  this 
book.    312  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.50 

Fumigation  Methods 

By  Willis  G.  Johnson.  A  timely  up-to-date  book  on 
the  practical  application  of  the  new  methods  for  destroying 
insects  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  carbon  bisulphid,  the 
most  powerful  insecticides  ever  discovered.  It  is  an  indis- 
pensable book  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  nurserymen, 
gardeners,  florists,  millers,  grain  dealers,  transportation  com- 
panies, college  and  experiment  station  workers,  etc.  Illus- 
trated.   313  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

Diseases  of  Swine 

By  Dr.  R.  A.  Craig,  Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
the  Purdue  University,  A  concise,  practical  and  popular  guide 
to  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  swine.  With 
the  discussions  on  each  disease  are  given  its  causes,  symptoms, 
treatment  and  means  of  prevention.  Every  part  of  the  book 
impresses  the  reader  with  the  fact  that  its  writer  is  thor- 
oughly and  practically  familiar  with  all  the  details  upon  which 
he  treats.  All  technical  and  strictly  scientific  terms  are 
avoided,  so  far  as  feasible,  thus  making  the  work  at  once 
available  to  the  practical  stock  raiser  as  well  as  to  the  teacher 
and  student.    Illustrated.    5  x  7  inches.    IQO  pages.    Cloth.    $0.75 

Spraying  Crops — Why,  When  and  How 

By  Clarence  M.  Weed,  D.Sc.  The  present  fourth  edition 
has  been  rewritten  and  set  throughout  to  bring  it  thoroughly 
up  to  date,  so  that  it  embodies  the  latest  practical  information 
gleaned  by  fruit  growers  and  experiment  station  workers.  So 
much  new  information  has  come  to  light  since  the  third  edi- 
tion was  published  that  this  is  practically  a  new  book,  needed 
by  those  who  have  utilized  the  earlier  editions,  as  well  as  by 
fruit  growers  and  farmers  generally.  Illustrated.  136  pages. 
5x7  inches.     Cloth. $0.50 

(10) 


Successful  Fruit  Culture 

By  Samuel  T.  Maynard.  A  practical  guide  to  the  culti- 
vation and  propagation  of  Fruits,  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  practical  fruit  grower  who  is  striving  to  make  his 
business  profitable  by  growing  the  best  fruit  possible  and  at 
the  least  cost.  It  is  up-to-date  in  every  particular,  and  covers 
the  entire  practice  of  fruit  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  mar- 
keting, forcing,  best  varieties,  etc.,  etc.  It  deals  with  principles 
first  and  with  the  practice  afterwards,  as  the  foundation,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth  and  nourishment  must  always  remain 
the  same,  while  practice  will  vary  according  to  the  fruit 
grower's  immediate  conditions  and  environments.  Illustrated. 
265  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.      . $1.00 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  A  complete  manual  for  fruit  growers, 
nurserymen,  farmers  and  gardeners,  on  all  known  varieties 
of  plums  and  their  successful  management.  This  book  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  horticultural  literature  of  America.  It  is  a 
complete  monograph  of  the  plums  cultivated  in  and  indigenous 
to  North  America.  It  will  be  found  indispensable  to  the 
scientist  seeking  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  informa- 
tion concerning  this  group,  to  the  nurseryman  who  wishes  to 
handle  his  varieties  accurately  and  intelligently,  and  to  the 
cultivator  who  would  like  to  grow  plums  successfully.  Illus- 
trated.   391  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.50 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  A  practical  guide  to  the  picking,  stor- 
ing, shipping  and  marketing  of  fruit.  The  principal  subjects 
covered  are  the  fruit  market,  fruit  picking,  sorting  and  pack- 
ing, the  fruit  storage,  evaporation,  canning,  statistics  of  the 
fruit  trade,  fruit  package  laws,  commission  dealers  and  deal- 
ing, cold  storage,  etc.,  etc.  No  progressive  fruit  grower  can 
afford  to  be  without  this  most  valuable  book.  Illustrated. 
232  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Systematic  Pomology 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture  and  landscape 
gardening  in  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college,  formerly 
of  the  university  of  Vermont.  This  is  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language  which  has  ever  made  the  attempt  at  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  treatment  of  systematic  pomology. 
It  presents  clearly  and  in  detail  the  whole  method  by  which 
fruits  are  studied.  The  book  is  suitably  illustrated.  288 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

(11) 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 

By  Professor  Thomas  Shaw.  This  book  is  intended  alike 
for  the  student  and  the  farmer.  The  author  has  succeeded  in 
giving  in  regular  and  orderly  sequence,  and  in  language  so 
simple  that  a  child  can  understand  it,  the  principles  that  govern 
the  science  and  practice  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Professor 
Shaw  is  certainly  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  man- 
ner in  which  he  has  accomplished  a  most  difficult  task.  His 
book  is  unquestionably  the  most  practical  work  which  has  ap- 
peared on  the  subject  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Illustrated. 
53^  X  8  inches.    Upward  of  500  pages.    Cloth.     .     .      .     $2.00 

Profitable  Dairying 

By  C.  L.  Peck.  A  practical  guide  to  successful  dairy  man- 
agement. The  treatment  of  the  entire  subject  is  thoroughly 
practical,  being  principally  a  description  of  the  methods  prac- 
ticed by  the  author,  A  specially  valuable  part  of  this  book 
consists  of  a  minute  description  of  the  far-famed  model  dairy 
farm  of  Rev.  J.  D.  Detrich,  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.  On  the 
farm  of  fifteen  acres,  which  twenty  years  ago  could  not  main- 
tain one  horse  and  two  cows,  there  are  now  kept  twenty-seven 
dairy  cattle,  in  addition  to  two  horses.  All  the  roughage, 
litter,  bedding,  etc.,  necessary  for  these  animals  are  grown  on 
these  fifteen  acres,  more  than  most  farmers  could  accomplish 
on  one  hundred  acres.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  200  pages. 
Cloth $0.75 

Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology 

By  Dr.  H.  W.  Conn,  of  Wesleyan  University.  A  complete 
exposition  of  important  facts  concerning  the  relation  of  bac- 
teria to  various  problems  related  to  milk.  A  book  for  the 
classroom,  laboratory,  factory  and  farm.  Equally  useful  to 
the  teacher,  student,  factory  man  and  practical  dairyman. 
Fully  illustrated  with  83  original  pictures.  340  pages.  Cloth. 
5^  X  8  inches $1.25 


Modern     Methods     of     Testing     Milk     and     Milk 
Products 

By  L.  L.  VanSlyke.  This  is  a  clear  and  concise  discussion 
of  the  approved  methods  of  testing  milk  and  milk  products. 
All  the  questions  involved  in  the  various  methods  of  testing 
milk  and  cream  are  handled  with  rare  skill  and  yet  in  so  plain 
a  manner  that  they  can  be  fully  understood  by  all.  The  book 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  dairyman,  teacher  or  student. 
Illustrated.    214  pages.    5x7  inches $0  75 

(12) 


Animal  Breeding 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  This  book  is  the  most  complete  and 
comprehensive  work  ever  published  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats.  It  is  the  first  book  which  has  systematized  the  sub- 
ject of  animal  breeding.  The  leadmg  laws  which  govern  this 
most  intricate  question  the  author  has  boldly  defined  and 
authoritatively  arranged.  The  chapters  which  he  has  written 
on  the  more  involved  features  of  the  subject,  as  sex  and  the 
relative  influence  of  parents,  should  go  far  toward  setting  at 
rest  the  wildly  speculative  views  cherished  with  reference  to 
these  questions.  The  striking  originality  in  the  treatment  of 
the  subject  is  no  less  conspicuous  than  the  superb  order  and 
regular  sequence  of  thought  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  book.  The  book  is  intended  to  meet  the  needs  of  all 
persons  interested  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  live  stock. 
Illustrated.     40.=;  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .      .      .     $1.50 

Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use 
them.  Indian  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  leguminous  plants,  crops 
of  the  brassica  genus,  the  cereals,  millet,  field  roots,  etc. 
Intensely  practical  and  reliable.  Illustrated.  287  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth $i.oc 

SoiUng  Crops  and  the  Silo 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  The  growing  and  feeding  of  all  kinds 
of  soiling  crops,  conditions  to  which  they  are  adapted,  their 
plan  in  the  rotation,  etc.  Not  a  line  is  repeated  from  the 
Forage  Crops  book.  Best  methods  of  building  the  silo,  filling 
it  and  feeding  ensilage.  Illustrated.  364  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.50 

The  Study  of  Breeds 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  Origin,  history,  distribution,  charac- 
teristics, adaptability,  uses,  and  standards  of  excellence  of  all 
pedigreed  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  America.  The 
accepted  text  book  in  colleges,  and  the  authority  for 
farmers  and  breeders.  Illustrated.  371  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.50 

Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  This  is  the  first  book  published-which 
treats  on  the  growth,  cultivation  and  treatment  of  clovers  as 
applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
which  takes  up  the  entire  subject  in  a  systematic  way  and 
consecutive  sequence.  The  importance  of  clover  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  farm  is  so  great  that  an  exhaustive  work  on  this 
subject  will  no  doubt  be  welcomed  by  students  in  agriculture, 
as  well  as  by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  tilling  of  the  soil. 
Illustrated.    5  x  7  inches.    337  pages.    Cloth.    Net    ■     .     $1.00 

(13> 


Land  Draining 

A  handbook  for  farmers  on  the  principles  and  practice  of 
draining,  by  Manly  Miles,  giving  the  results  of  his  extended 
experience  in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions  for  the  laying 
out  and  the  construction  of  tile  drains  will  enable  the  farmer 
to  avoid  the  errors  of  imperfect  construction,  and  the  disap- 
pointment that  must  necessarily  follow.  This  manual  for 
practical  farmers  will  also  be  found  convenient  for  reference 
in  regard  to  many  questions  that  may  arise  in  crop  growing, 
aside  from  the  special  subjects  of  drainage  of  which  it  treats. 
Illustrated.    200  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  illustrations.  A  most  valu- 
able work,  full  of  ideas,  hints,  suggestions,  plans,  etc.,  for  the 
construction  of  barns  and  outbuildings,  by  practical  writers. 
Chapters  are  devoted  to  the  economic  erection  and  use  of 
barns,  grain  barns,  horse  barns,  cattle  barns,  sheep  barns, 
cornhouses,  smokehouses,  icehouses,  pig  pens,  granaries,  etc. 
There  are  likewise  chapters  on  birdhouses,  doghouses,  tool 
sheds,  ventilators,  roofs  and  roofing,  doors  and  fastenings, 
workshops,  poultry  houses,  manure  sheds,  barnyards,  root  pits, 
etc.    235  pages.    5  x  7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

Irrigation  Farming 

By  Lute  Wilcox.  A  handbook  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  water  in  the  production  of  crops.  A  complete  treatise 
on  water  supply,  canal  construction,  reservoirs  and  ponds, 
pipes  for  irrigation  purposes,  flumes  and  their  structure, 
methods  of  applying  water,  irrigation  of  field  crops,  the 
garden,  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  windmills  and  pumps, 
appliances  and  contrivances.  New  edition,  revised,  enlarged 
and  rewritten.  Profusely  illustrated.  Over  500  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth $2.00 


Forest  Planting 

By  H.  Nicholas  Jarchow,  LL.  D.  A  treatise  on  the  care 
of  woodlands  and  the  restoration  of  the  denuded  timberlands 
on  plains  and  mountains.  The  author  has  fully  described 
those  European  methods  which  have  proved  to  be  most  useful 
in  maintaining  the  superb  forests  of  the  old  world.  This  expe- 
rience has  been  adapted  to  the  different  climates  and  trees  of 
America,  full  instructions  being  given  for  forest  planting  of 
our  various  kinds  of  soil  and  subsoil,  whether  on  mountain 
or  valley.    Illustrated.    250  pages.    5  x  7  inches.    Cloth.    $1.50 

(14) 


The  New  Egg  Farm 

By  H.  H.  Stoddard.  A  practical,  reliable  manual  on 
producing  eggs  and  poultry  for  market  as  a  profitable  business 
enterprise,  either  by  itself  or  connected  with  other  branches 
of  agriculture.  It  tells  all  about  how  to  feed  and  manage, 
how  to  breed  and  select,  incubators  and  brooders,  its  labor- 
saving  devices,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated.  331  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.00 

Poultry  Feeding  and  Fattening 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  Fiske.  A  handbook  for  poultry  keep- 
ers on  the  standard  and  improved  methods  of  feeding  and 
marketing  all  kinds  of  poultry.  The  subject  of  feeding  and 
fattening  poultry  is  prepared  largely  from  the  side  of  the 
best  practice  and  experience  here  and  abroad,  although  the 
underlying  science  of  feeding  is  explained  as  fully  as  needful. 
The  subject  covers  all  branches,  including  chickens,  broilers, 
capons,  turkeys  and  waterfowl ;  how  to  feed  under  various 
conditions  and  for  different  purposes.  The  whole  subject  of 
capons  and  caponizing  is  treated  in  detail.  A  great  mass  of 
practical  information  and  experience  not  readily  obtainable 
elsewhere  is  given  with  full  and  explicit  directions  for  fatten- 
ing and  preparing  for  market.  This  book  will  meet  the  needs 
of  amateurs  as  well  as  commercial  poultry  raisers.  Profusely 
illustrated.    160  pages.    5  x  75^  inches.    Cloth.     .     .     .     $0.50 

Poultry  Architecture 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  Fiske.  A  treatise  on  poultry  buildings 
of  all  grades,  styles  and  classes,  and  their  proper  location, 
coops,  additions  and  special  construction;  all  practical  in  de- 
sign, and  reasonable  in  cost.  Over  100  illustrations.  125  pages. 
5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Poultry  Appliances  and  Handicraft 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  Fiske.  Illustrated  description  of  a 
great  variety  and  styles  of  the  best  homemade  nests,  roosts, 
windows,  ventilators,  incubators  and  brooders,  feeding  and 
watering  appliances,  etc.,  etc.  Over  100  illustrations.  Over 
125  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 

Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

Edited  by  Herbert  Myrick.  A  treatise  on  the  natural 
history  and  origin  of  the  name  of  turkeys;  the  various  breeds, 
the  best  methods  to  insure  success  in  the  business  of  turkey 
growing.  With  essays  from  practical  turkey  growers  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Copiously 
illustrated.     154  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

(18) 


Rural  School  Agriculture 

By  Charles  W.  Davis.  A  book  intended  for  the  use  of 
both  teachers  and  pupils.  Its  aim  is  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
the  boys  oi  the  farm  and  awaken  in  their  minds  the  fact  that 
the  problems  of  the  farm  are  great  enough  to  command  all  the 
brain  power  they  can  summon.  The  book  is  a  manual  of  exer- 
cises covering  many  phases  of  agriculture,  and  it  may  be  used 
with  any  text-book  of  agriculture,  or  without  a  text-book.  The 
exercises  will  enable  the  student  to  think,  and  to  work  out  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  some  of  the  most  important 
agricultural  operations.  The  author  feels  that  in  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools,  the  laboratory  phase  is  al- 
most entirely  neglected.  If  an  experiment  helps  the  pupil  to 
think,  or  makes  his  conceptions  clearer,  it  fills  a  useful  pur- 
pose, and  eventually  prepares  for  successful  work  upon  the 
farm.  The  successful  farmer  of  the  future  must  be  an  experi- 
menter in  a  small  way.  Following  many  of  the  exercises  are  a 
number  of  questions  which  prepare  the  way  for  further  re- 
search work.  The  material  needed  for  performing  the  experi- 
ments is  simple,  and  can  be  devised  by  the  teacher  and  pupils, 
or  brought  from  the  homes.  Illustrated.  300  pages.  Cloth. 
5x7  inches $i.-oo 

Agriculture   Through   the   Laboratory   and   School 
Garden 

By  C.  R.  Jackson  and  Mrs.  L.  S.  Daugherty.  As  its  name 
implies,  this  book  gives  explicit  directions  for  actual  work  in 
the  laboratory  and  the  school  garden,  through  which  agri- 
cultural principles  may  be  taught.  The  author's  aim  has  been 
to  present  actual  experimental  work  in  every  phase  of  the 
subject  possible,  and  to  state  the  directions  for  such  work  so 
that  the  student  can  perform  it  independently  of  the  teacher, 
and  to  state  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  results  will  not  be 
suggested  by  these  directions.  One  must  perform  the  experi- 
ment to  ascertain  the  result.  It  embodies  in  the  text  a  com- 
prehensive, practical,  scientific,  yet  simple  discussion  of  such 
facts  as  are  necessary  to  the  understanding  of  many  of  the 
agricultural  principles  involved  in  every-day  life.  The  book, 
although  primarily  intended  for  use  in  schools,  is  equally 
valuable  to  any  one  desiring  to  obtain  in  an  easy  and  pleasing 
manner  a  general  knowledge  of  elementary  agriculture.  Fully 
illustrated.    5 1^2  x  8  inches.    462  pages.     Cloth.     Net     .     $1.50 

Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide 

By  W.  G.  Stevenson  and  I.  O.  Schaub.  A  carefully  out- 
lined series  of  experiments  in  soil  physics.  A  portion  of  the 
experiments  outlined  in  this  guide  have  been  used  quite  gen- 
erally in  recent  years.  The  exercises  (of  wdiich  there  are  40) 
are  listed  in  a  logical  order  with  reference  to  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  the  skill  required  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
Illustrated.     About  100  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .     $0.50 

(17) 


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